Ancient India as described by Ptolemy--translation by McCrindle s.pdf

ANCIENT INDIA

AS DESCRIBED BY

PTOLEMY:

A TRANSLATION OF THE CHAPTERS WHICH DESCRIBE INDIA
AND CENTRAL AND EASTERN ASIA IN THE TREATISE ON
GEOGRAPHY WRITTEN BY KLAUDIOS PTOLEMAIOS,

THE CELEBRATED ASTRONOMER,

WITH
INTRODUCTION, COMMENTARY, MAP OF
INDIA ACCORDING TO PTOLEMY, AND
A VERY COPIOUS INDEX,

BY

J. W. McCRINDLE, M.A., M.R.A.S.,

FORMERLY PRINCIPAL OF THE GOVERNMENT COLLEGE, PATNA,
AND FELLOW OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA ;
MEMBER OF THE GENERAL COUNCIL OF THE UNIVERSITY
OF EDINBURGH.

Reprinted from the ‘‘ Indian Antiquary,’”’ 1884.

Galeutta: Bombay:
THACKER, SPINK & Co. B. E. S. PRESS.

Hondon:
TRUBNER & Co.

1885.

BOMBAY :

PRINTED AT THE EDUCATION SOCIETY'S PRESS.

PREFACE.

Protemy’s “ Treatise on Geography,” like his
famous work on astronomy to which it formed
the sequel, was destined to govern the world’s
opinion on the subject of which it treated, from
the time of its publication until the dawn of
the modern era, a period ef about 1,300 years.
This treatise must have been composed in the
interests of chartography rather than of geo-
graphy, for the anthor’s aim is not so much
to describe the earth’s surface as to lay down
the principles on which maps should be con-
structed, and te determine the latitude and
longitude of places with a view to their
being mapped in their proper positions. The
principles he here laid down have proved of
permanent validity, and are still practically
applied in the art of map-construction, but his
determinations of the position of places, owing
to the paucity and imperfection of the astro-
nomical observations on which, in combination
with the existing measurements of terrestrial
distances his conclusions were based, are all,
with very few exceptions, incorrect. The work
lost, of course, much of its old authority as soon
as the discoveries of modern times had brought
its grave and manifold errors to light. It did

iV PREFACE.

not, however, on this account cease to be of
high interest and value as an antiquarian re-
cord, if we may judge from the multiplicity of
the learned disquisitions which have from time
to time been published in elucidation of many
points of Ptolemaic Geography.

There is perhaps no part of the contents
which has received more attention from scholars
than the chapters relating to India, where the
tables abound to a surprising extent with
names which are found nowhere else in classi-
cal literature, and which were doubtless ob-
tained directly from Indian sources, rather than
from reports of travellers or tradérs who had
visited the country. On glancing over these
names one cannot fail to remark how very few
of them have any but the most distant resem-
blance to the indigenous names which they
must have been intended to represent. Philo-
logists, however, have made persistent efforts
to penetrate the disguise which conceals the
original forms of the names so much dis-
torted by Ptolemy, and have succeeded in
establishing a great number of satisfactory
identifications, as well as in hitting upon others
which have a balance of probability in their
favour—a similar service has been rendered by
the archeological investigations which have
how for many years been systematically prose-
cuted under the auspices of the Indian
Government.

PREFACE. Pad Vv

The present work has for its main object to
show concisely what has been accomplished
up to this time in this department of enquiry.
It has been compiled from multifarious sources
which are not easily accessible, as for instance
from foreign publications not yet translated
into our own language, and from the Journals
and Transactions of various societies at home
and abroad which concern themselves with
Oriental literature.

I venture therefore to hope that my com-
pendium, which it has taken much time and
laborious research to prepare, may meet with
recognition and acceptance as a useful contri-
bution to general literature, while proving
also serviceable to scholars as a work of re-
ference.

I proceed now to indicate the method which
I have followed in the treatment of my subject,
and to specify the authorities on which I have
principally relied. I have then, in an intro-
ductory chapter, attempted to give a succinct
account of the general nature of Ptolemy’s
geographical system, and this is followed by
a translation of several chapters of his First
Book which serve to exhibit his general mode
of procedure in dealing with questions of Geo-
graphy, and at the same time convey his views
of the configuration of the coasts of India, both
on this side the Ganges and beyond. In
translating the text I have taken it in detach-

V1 PREFACE.

ments of convenient length, to each of which
I have subjoined a commentary, the main
object of which is—l1st, to show, as far as has
been ascertained, how each place named by
Ptolemy in his Indian Tables has been identi-
fied; 2nd, to:trace the origin or etymology of
each name, so far as it is possible to do so; and
3rd, to notice very concisely the most promi-
nent facts in the ancient history of the places
of importance mentioned. I have, as a rule»
quoted the sources from which my information
has been derived, but may here state that I
have generally adopted the views of M. Vivien
de Saint-Martin and those of Colonel Yule,
whose map of ancient India in Smith’s well-
known historical dilas of Ancient Geography is
allowed on all hands to be the best that has yet
been produced. These authors have examined
the greater part of the Ptolemaic Geography
of India, and their conclusions are for the most
part coincident. The works of Saint-Martin,
which I have consulted, are these: Etude sur
la Géographre Grecque et Latine de I’ Inde, et en
particulier sur VInde de Ptolémée, dans ses
rapports avec la Géographie Sanskrite ; Mémoire
Analytique sur la Carte de l Asie Centrale et de
V Inde ; et Etude sur la Géogruphie et les popula-
tions primitives du Nord-Ouest de lV Inde d’aprés
les hymnes védiques. Colonel Yule has expressed
his views chiefly in the notes upon the map
referred to, but also occasionally in the notes

PREFACE. vit

to his edition of Marco Polv and in other works
from his pen. Frequent reference will be
found in my notes to that work of vast erudi-
tion, Prof. Lassen’s Indische Alterthumskunde.
Unfortunately the section which he has devoted
to a full examination of Ptolemy’s India is the
least satisfactory portion of his work. His
system of identification is based on a wrong
principle, and many of the conclusions to
which it has led are such as cannot be accepted.
His work is notwithstanding, as Yule says,
‘‘a precious mine of material for the study of
the ancient grography of India.” For elucida-
tions of the Ptolemaic geography of particular
portions of India I have consulted with great
advantage such works as the following :—-
Wilson’s Ariana Antiqua, General Cunningham’s
Geography of Ancient India, Vol. I. (all yet
published), and his Reports on the Archaeological
Survey of India; Bishop Caldwell’s Introduc-
tion to his Dravidian Grammar, valuable for
identification of places in the south of the
Peninsula; the Bombay Gazetteer, edited} by
Mr. J: M. Campbell, who has carefully investi-
gated the antiquities of that Presidency; the
volumes of <siatic Researches; the Journals of
the Royal Asiatic Soctety and of the kindred
Societies in India; the Journals of the Royal
Geographical Society ; the articles on India and
places in India in Smith’s Dictionary of Classi-
cal Geography, written almost all by Mr.

Vii PREFACE,

Vaux; articlesin the Indian Antiquary ; Ben-
fey’s Indien in the Encyclopédie of Krsch
and Griiber; the Abbé Halma’s Tratté de Géo-
graphie de Claude Ptolémée, Paris, 1828; the
Chapters on Marinus and Ptolemy’s System
of Geography in Bunbury’s History of Ancient
Geography ; Priaulx’s Indian Travels of Apol-
lontus of Tyana, &c.; Stephanos of Byzantium
On Cities; Sir Emerson Tennent’s Ceylon; Sir
H. Rawlinson’s articles on Central Asia which
have appeared in various publications, and
other works which need not here be specified.

There has recently been issued from the
press of Firmin-Didot, Paris, the first volume of
a new and most elaborate edition of Ptolemy’s
Geography, prepared by C. Muller, the learned
editor of the Geographi Graect Minores, but
the work unfortunately has not advanced so
far as to include the chapters which contain
the geography of India.

I would here take the opportunity of ex-
pressing my obligations to Dr, Burgess, the
late editor of the Indian Antiquary, for his
careful revision of the proofs, and for sundry
valuable suggestions.

Having thought it advisable to extend the
scope of the work beyond the limits originally
contemplated, I have included in it those
chapters of the geography in which China,
Central Asia, and all the provinces adjacent
to India are described. The reader is thus

PREFACE, 1x

presented with the Ptolemaic Geography of
the whole of Asia, with the exception only of
those countries which from propinquity and
frequency of intercourse were well known to
the nations of the West.

In a short Appendix will be found some
additional notes.

The present volume forms the fourth of the
Series of Annotated Translations of the Works
of the Classical Writers which relate to India.
Another volume, containing Strabo’s Indian
Geography and the Accounts given by Arrian
and Curtius of the Makedonian Invasion of
India, will complete the series.

3, ABBOTSFORD Park, EDINBURGH,
June, 1885.

CONTENTS.

Introduction ...cccceccoscees Lushan epaeaguieaa seas 1

Description of India within the Ganges.. 33

of India beyond the Ganges

(including Indo-China) ... 189
of the Sinai (Southern China). 244
of the Island of Taprobané

(Ceylon) Sotitoksdcsteagecss 247
Ob Tivrkaniae sgu.detieislesietiens 260
of Marpiatié: 2.1 esses vecseessasee 262
of Baktriané ...............4 stage COT
OF SOMA: weniansicesentat wes 274
of the: Sakai sicsiisesecisecscies 283
of Skythia within Ima@s ...... 285
of Skythia beyond Imads...... 292
of Sériké (Northern China)... 297
OL ATPIG cdsciewesaaeeea tenes seaeee BOD
of the Paropanisadai.,,......,... 310
of Drangiané........... ere eee 313
Of ArakhOsia .........ccececsenves 315
Of Gedr0sia ... .....cseeensoree- 319

x1 CONTENTS.
. PAGE
Appendix of Additional Notes .........-..46. 331
1. On the Latitude of Byzantium and
that of Tash-Kurghan (p. 14) ... 331
2. On Kouroula (pp. 22, 63-4)........ 331
3. On the Argaric Gulf and Argeirou
(pp. 22,. 09 and 60) > cssvseeseeeeses 331
4, On Thelkheir (pp. 63 and 64)...... 332
5. On Orthoura (pp. 64 and 184) ... 332
6. On Arkatos (p. 64) ...ceccecseceeee ». 302
7. Onthe River Adamas (p. 71) ...... 333
8, On Mount Sardonyx (p.77) ...... 334
9; On Talara: (p90) ..2,: corwncasvs axe vere. OOK
10. On Pounnata (p. 180) ............ 06. 334
11, On Arembour (pp. 180, 182) ...... 334
12, On Abour (p. 184) ....ccecceeeeeees 334
13.. On Argyra (p- 196): .c..60ccceasaens 334
14. On the Golden Khersonese (p. 197). 335
15. On the Loadstone rocks (p. 242).. 335
16. On the sandy deserts of Baktria
CBEZ(0) skcmkvwateaxeatea ote eabenate 330
17. On the River Ochos (p. 273) ...... 300
18, On the Avestic names of rivers,
&e., in Afghanistén ............005 336
19, Onthe Griffins or Gryphons (p.295). 338

ASTAE X TAB:~ Ptolemy's Map of India.

= - tot nba tte Z,, ¥ ¢ ; Y KA ‘4 Y } rs sake
Bolite a4 “ we ; ‘ ee Se faye
pe ait ue : \ is ~~ 2 scy thix mcra an
: a : : Jmaum pars

Chaurang: Scythe

} Bar raura

Phorena « Artoarta

Paraucn

‘ A Emodt monees
ee tot ys : ‘Tacorei

Scorpicfera ; i ON
regio > . ft CG ‘ \7
: " Pe a i pig A A Bavan cafara veh ?
& i pi oe. of Indig extra Gan:

Parurts monies ba: A i

or La f) : tla : pA mac N or ff
Draftoca 7 7 e ‘ nae a Canogisa
. sabonne lB ; n8,

“Phochs :
Roplhut¢ : A 5 fy gD
4, a Caffdea
: Corancali

ineaseages

wn
wr
rrrtr rt

Rehamae pars :
to jotarwim Noy dofora

Amara

Bettigi

q (Garmelila pe

Peviyria

c
Moediues meridianus j2t,ad
quem religus inclinati func

Salad aie allelorit ‘WT ay. 5

hearin ie getters .dama
nt

oR S|

hah pens rrr Wel ee (ae CT
aimee b 7 | | dd YT a0

Govt Photomncographi: Office Four 180

2

that it was a general treatise on the subject, like
the comprehensive work of Strabo, but in reality
it treats almost exclusively of Mathematical, or
what may be called Cosmical, Geography. Ptole-
my’s object in composing it was not like that of
the ordinary Geographer to describe places, but
to correct and reform the map of the world in
accordance with the increased knowledge which
had been acquired of distant countries and
with the improved state of science. He there-
fore limits his argument to an exposition of
the geometrical principles on which Geography
should be based, and to a determination of the
position of places on the surface of the earth by
their latitudes and longitudes. What he consi-
dered to be the proper method of determining
geographical positions he states very clearly in the
following passage: “The proper course,” he says,
‘‘in drawing up a map of the world is to lay
down as the basis of it those points that were
determined by the most correct (astronomical)
observations, and to fit into it those derived from
other sources, so that their positions may suit as
wellas possible with the principal points thus laid
down in the first instance.”

Unfortunately, as Bunbury remarks, it was
impossible for him to carry out in practice—even
approximately—the scheme that he had so well
laid down in theory. The astronomical obser-
vations to which he could refer were but few—
and they were withal either so defective or so
inaccurate that he could not use them with con-

1 Book I. cap. 4. The translation is Bunbury’s.

3

fidence. At the same time his information con-
cerning many parts of the earth, whether owing
to their remoteness or the conflicting accounts of
travellers regarding them, was imperfect in the
extreme. The extent, however, of his geographical
knowledge was far greater than that possessed by
any of his predecessors, and he had access to
sources of information which enabled him to
correct many of the errors into which they had
fallen.

He was induced to undertake the composition
of his Geography through his being dissatisfied
more or less with all the existing systems. There
was however one work—that of his immediate
precursor, Marinos of Tyre—which approximated
somewhat closely to his ideal, and which he there-
fore made the basis of his own treatise. Mari-
nos, he tell us, had collected his materials with
the most praiseworthy diligence, and had more-
over sifted them both with care and judgment.
He points out, however, that his system required
correction both as to the method of delineating
the sphere on a plane surface, and as to the com-
putation of distances, which he generally exag-
gerated. He censures him likewise for having
assigned to the known world too great a length
from west to east, and too great a breadth from
north to south.

Of Ptolemy’s own system, the more prominent
characteristics may now be noted: He assumed
the earth to be a sphere, and adopting the estimate
of Poseidonios fixed its circumference at 180,000
stadia, thus making the length of a degree at the
equator to be only 500 stadia, instead of 600, which

4

is its real length.? To this fundamental mis-
calculation may be referred not a few of the most
serious errors to be found in his work. With regard
to the question of the length and the breadth of the
inhabited part of the earth, a question of first
importance in those days, he estimated its length
as measured along the parallel of Rhodes® which
divided the then known world into two nearly
equal portions at 72,000 stadia, and its breadth
at 40,000. The meridian in the west from which
he calculated his longitudes was that which passed
through the Islands of the Blest (Makapwv Nicor)
probably the Canary Islands,* and his most

2 The Olympic stadium, which was in general use
throughout Greece, contained 600 Greek feet, which were
equal to 625 Roman feet, or 606i Englishfeet. The Roman

mile contained 8 stadia, or about half a stadium less
than an English mile. A stadium of 600 Greek feet was
very nearly the 600th part of a degree, and 10 stadia are
therefore just about equal to a Nautical or Geographical
mile. According to Eratosthenes, a degree at the Equator
was equal to 700 stadia, but according to Poseiddnios
it was equal to only 500. The truth lay between, but
Ptolemy unfortunately followed Poseiddnios in his

error.

3 “The equinoctial line was of course perfectly fixed
and definite in Ptolemy’s mind, as an astronomical line ;
but he had no means of assigning its position on the Map
of the World, except with reference to other parallels,
such as the tropic at Syene, or the parallels of Alexandria
and Rhodes, which had been determined by direct
observation.’”’—Bunbury, Hist. of Anc. Geog., vol. II,
p. 560, n. 2

* The Island of Ferro—the westernmost of the Group
of the Canaries, which was long taken as the prime
meridian, and is still so taken in Germany—is really
situated 18° 20’ west of Greenwich, while Cape St.
Vincent (called anciently the Sacred Cape) isjust about 9°,
so that the real difference between the two amounted to
9° 20’ instead of only 24°. Two corrections must there-
fore be applied to Ptolemy’ s longitudes—one-sixth must
be deducted because of his under-estimate of the length

5 ‘

eastern meridian was that which passed through
the Metropolis of the Sinai, which he calls Sinai
or Thinai, and places in 180° 40’ E. Long. and
3° 8. Lat. The distance of this meridian from
that of Alexandria he estimated at 1193 degrees,
and the distance of the first meridian from the
same at 603 degrees, making together 180 de-
grees, or exactly one-half of the circumference
of the earth. His estimate of the breadth he
obtained by fixing the southern limit of the
inhabited parts in the parallel of 163 degrecs
of South Latitude, which passes through a point
as far south of the Equator as Meroé is north
of it. And by fixing the northern limit in the
parallel of 63 degrees North Latitude, which passes
through Thoulé (probably the Shetland Islands),
a space of nearly 80 degrees was thus included
between the two parallels, and this was equivalent
in Ptolemy’s mode of reckoning to 40,000 stadia.

Having made these determinations he had next
to consider in what mode the surface of the earth
with its meridians of longitude and parallels of
latitude should be represented on a sphere and
on a plane surface—of the two modes of delinea-
tion that on the sphere is the much easier to
make, as it involves no method of projection, but
a map drawn on a plane is far more convenient for
use, as it presents simultaneously to the eye a far
greater extent of surface. Marinos had drawn
his map of the world on a plane, but his method

of a degree alone the Equator, and 6° 50" must be added be-
cause Ferro was so much further west than he supposed.
Subject to these corrections his longitudes would be
fairly accurate, provided his calculations of distances
were otherwise free from error.

6

of projection was altogether unsatisfactory. It
is thus described by Ptolemy: Marinos, he says,
on account of the importance of the countries
around the Mediterranean, kept as his base the
line fixed on of old by Eratosthenes, viz. the
parallel through Rhodes in the 36th degree of
north latitude. He then calculated the length
of a degree along this parallel, and found it to
contain 400 stadia, the equatorial degree being
taken at 500. Having divided this parallel
into degrees he drew perpendiculars through the
points of division for the meridians, and his
parallels of latitude were straight lines parallel to
that which passed through Rhodes. The imper-
fections of such a projection are obvious. It
represented the parts of the earth north of the
parallel of Rhodes much beyond, and those south
of it much below, their proper length. Places
again to the north of the line stood too far apart
from each other, and those to the south of it too
close together. The projection, moreover, is an
erroneous representation, since the parallels of
latitude ought to be circular ares and not straight
lines

Ptolemy having pointed out these objections:
to the system of Marinos proceeds to explain the
methods which he himself employed. We need
say nothing more regarding them than that they
were such as presented a near approximation to
some of those which are still in use among
modern Geographers.

Ptolemy’s treatise is divided into 8 books. In
the Ist or introductory book he treats first
of Geography generally—he then explains and

a

criticizes the system of Marinos, and concludes by
describing the methods of projection which may
be employed in the construction of maps. The
next 6 books and the first 4 chapters of the 7th
book consist of tables which give distinctly in
degrees and parts of a degree the latitudes and
longitudes of all the places in his map. These
places are arranged together in sections accord-
ing to the country or tribe to which they belong,
and each section has prefixed to it a brief de-
scription of the boundaries and divisions of the
part about to be noticed. Descriptive notices are
also occasionally interspersed among the lists, but
the number of such is by no means considerable.
The remainder of the 7th book and the whole of
the 8th are occupied with a description of a series
of maps which, it would appear, had been prepared
to accompany the publication of the work, and
which are still extant. The number of the maps is
twenty-six, viz. 10 for Europe, 4 for Libya, and 12
for Asia. They are drawn to different scales, larger
or smaller, according as the division represented
was more or less known. He gives for each
map the latitudes and longitudes of a certain
number of the most important cities contained
in it, but these positions were not given in the
same manner as in the tables, for the latitudes
are now denoted by the length of the longest day
and the longitudes according to the difference of
time from Alexandria. It might be supposed
that the positions in question were such as had
been determined by actual astronomical observa-
tions, as distinguished from those in the Tables,
which were for the most part derived from itine-

8

raries, ov from records of voyages and travels.
This supposition is however untenable, for we
find that while the statements as to the length of
the longest days at the selected places are always
correct for the latitudes assigned them, they are
often glaringly wrong for their real positions.
Ptolemy, it is evident, first mapped out in the best
way he could the places, and then calculated
for the more important of these places the
astronomical phenomena incident to them as so
situated. I conclude by presenting the reader
with a translation of some chapters of the In-
troductory Book,°® where Ptolemy in reviewing the
estimate made by Marinos of the length of the
known world from west to east, has frequent
occasion to mention India and the Provinces
beyond the Ganges, which together constitute
what is now called Indo-China.

Book I., Car. 11.

§ 1. What has now been stated will suffice
to show us what extent in breadth it would
be fair to assign to the inhabited world.
Its length is given by Marinos at 15 hours,
this being the distance comprised between his
two extreme meridians—but in our opinion he
has unduly extended the distance towards the
east. In fact, if the estimate be properly
reduced in this direction the entire length
must be fixed at less than 12 hours, the Islands
of the Blest being taken as the limit towards

mia edition used is that of C. F. A. Noble, Leipsic,
1843.

9

the west, and the remotest parts of Séra and
the Sinai® and Kattigara’ as the limit towards

§ “* China for nearly 1,000 years has been known to the
nations of Inner Asia, and to those whose acquaintance
with it was got by that channel, under the name of
Khitai, Khata, or Cathay, e.g., the Russians still call it
Khitai. The pair of names, Khitai and Machin, or
Cathay and China, is analogous to the other pair Seres
and Sinai. Seres was the name of the great nation in
the far east as known by land, Sinai as known by sea;
and they were often supposed to be diverse, just as
Cathay and China were afterwards.” Yule’s Marco
Polo, 2nd ed., Introd., p. 11 and note.

7 The locality of Kattigara has been fixed very
variously. Richthofen identified it with Kian-chi in
Tong-king, and Colonel Yule has adopted this view.
‘““To myself,’’ he says, ‘“‘ the arguments adduced by
Richthofen in favour of the location of Kattigara in the
Gulf of Tong-king, are absolutely convincing. This
position seems to satisfy every condition. For 1st,
Tong-king was for some centuries at that period (B. C.
111 to A.D. 263), only incorporated as part of the Chinese
Empire. 2nd, the only part mentioned in the Chinese
annals as at that period open to foreign traffic was Kian-
chi, substantially identical with the modern capital of
Tong-king, Kesho or Hanoi. Whilst there are no
notices of foreign arrivals by any other approach, there
are repeated notices of such arrivals by this province,
including that famous embassy from Antun, King of
Ta-t’sin, t.e., M. Aurelius Antoninus (A.D. 161-180) in
A.D. 166. The province in question was then known
as Ji-nan (or Zhi-nan, French); whence possibly the
name Sinai, which has travelled so far and spread over
such libraries of literature. The Chinese Annalist who
mentions the Roman Embassy adds: ‘The people of
that kingdom (Ta-t’sin or the Roman Empire) came in
numbers for trading purposes to Fu-nan, Ji-nan, and
Kian-chi.’ Fu-nan we have seen, was Champa, or Zabai.
In Ji-nan with its chief port Kian-chi, we may recognize
with assurance Kattigara, Portus Sinarum. Richthofen’s
solution has the advantages of preserving the true mean-
ing of Sinai as the Chinese, and of locating the Portus
Sinarum in what was then politically a part of China,
whilst the remote Metropolis Thinae remains unequivo-
cally the capital of the Empire, whether Si-gnan-fu in
Chen-si, or Lo-yang in Ho-nan be meant. I will only
add that though we find Katighora in Edrisi’s Geography,
I apprehend this to be amere adoption from the Geogra-

2G

to

the east. § 2. Now the entire distance frou
the Islands of the Blest to the passage of

phy of Ptolemy, founded on no recent authority. It
must have kept its place alse en the later medieval
maps ; for Pigafetta, in that part of the circumnaviga-
tion where the crew of the Victoria began to look out
for the Asiatic coast, says that Magellan ‘ changed the
course... until in 13° of N. Lat. in erder to approach.
the land of Cape Gaticara, which Cape (under cerrection
of those who have made cosmography their study, for they
have never seen it), is not placed where they think, but.
is towards the north in 12° or thereabouts.’ [The Cape
looked for was evidently the extreme S..E.pointof Asia,
actually represented by Cape Varela or Cape St. James’
on the coast of Cochin-China.] It is probable that, as.
Richthofen points out, Kattigara, or at any rate Kian-
chi, was the Lukin or Al-W4kin of the early Arab Geo-
graphers. But the terminus of the Arab voyagers of the
9th century was no longer in Tong-King, it was Khan-fu,
apparently the Kan-pu of the Chinese, the haven of the
reat city which we know as Hang-chow, and which then:
ay on or near a delta-arm of the great Yang-tse.’’
These arguments may be accepted as conclusively settling
the vexed question as to the position of Kattigara. In
a paper, however, recently read before the R. Asiatic
Scciety, Mr. Holt, an eminent Chinese scholar, expressed
a different view. He ‘‘showed that there was goog
evidence of a very early communication from seme port
on the Chinese coast to near Martaban, or along the
valley of the Irawadi to the north-west capital of China,
then at Si-gnan-fu or Ho-nan-fu. He then showed that the
name of China had been derived from the Indians, who.
first knew China, and was not due to the Fsin Dynasty,
but more probably came from the name of the Compass,
specimens of which were supplied to the early envoys,
the Chinese being thus known in India as the ‘ Compass-:
people,’ just as the Seres, another Chinese population,.
derived their western name from ‘Silk.’ That the
knowledge of this fact was lost ta both Indians and:
Chinese is clear from the use by Hiuen-Tsiang and
later writers of two symbols (see Morrison’s Dic-
tionary, syllabic part, No. 8,033) to designate the
eountry, as these, while giving the sound ‘ Che-ha,’
indicate that they are substitutes for original words of
like sounds, the true sense of which cannot now be re-
covered. Having shown that M. Reinaud’s view of ar
intercourse between China and Egypt in the first
eentury A.D. has no real foundation, Mr. Holt

Vt

the Euphrates at Hierapolis, as measured along
the parallel of Rhodes, is accurately determined
by summing tegether the several intervening
distances as estimated in stadia by Marinos,
for not only were the distances well ascertained
from being frequeutly traversed, but Marinos
seems moreover in his computation of the
greater distances, to have taken into account
the necessary corrections for irregularities and
deviations.° Heunderstood, besides, that while
the length of a single degree of the 360
degrees into which the equatorial circle is
divided measures, as in the commonly accepted
estimate, 500 stadia, the parallel circle which
passes through Rhodes in 36 degrees of N.
latitude, measures about 400 stadia. § 3. It
measures, in fact, a little over that number if
we go by the exact proportion of the parallels,
bat the excess is so trifling as in the case of the
equatorial degree, thatit may be neglected. But

further stated that there was ne evidence of an embassy
from M. Aurelius having gone by sea to China in A.D.
166. In conclusion, he urged, that in his judgment,
there was no proof whatever of any knowledge of a
maritime way to China before the 4th century A.D., the
voyage even of Fa-hian, at that period being open to
serious criticism. He believes therefore with M. Gos-
selin that the Kattigara of Ptolemy was probably not far
from the present Martaban, and that India for a consi-
derable period up to the 7th century A.D. dominated
over Cambodia.”’

® Deviations from the straight line by which the route
would be represented in the map. The irregularities
refer to the eccasional shortening of the daily march by
obstacles of various kinds, bad roads, hostile attacks.
fatigue, &c.

12

his estimates of the distances beyond Hierapolis
require correction. § 4, He computes the
distance from the passage of the Huphrates
already mentioned to the Stone Tower’ at 876

* “One of the circumstances of the route that Pto-
lemy has reproduced from Marinos is that on leaving
Baktra the traveller directed his course for a long
enough time towards the North. Assuredly the caravans
touched at Samarkand (the Marakanda of Greek authors)
which was then, as now, one of the important centres of
the region beyond the Oxus. For passing from Sogdia-
na to the east of the snowy range, which covers the
sources of the Jaxartes and the Oxus, three main routes
have existed at all times: that of the south, which ascends
the high valleys of the Oxus through Badakshin ; that
in the centre, which goes directly to Kashgar by the
high valleys of the Syr-Darya or Jaxartes; and lastly
that of the north, which goes down a part of the middle
valley of the Jaxartes before turning to the east towards
Chinese Tartary. Of thege three routes, the itinerary of the
Greek merchants could only apply to the 2nd or the 3rd ;
and if, as has been for a long time supposed with much
probability, the Stone Tower of the Itinerary is found in
an important place belonging to the valley of the
Jaxartes, of which the name Tashkand has precisely the
same meaning in the language of the Turkomans, it
would be the northern route that the caravan of Maés
would have followed. The march of seven months in
advancing constantly towards the east leads necessarily

towards the north of China (Saint-Martin, Etude, pp.
428-9.) Sir H. Rawlinson however assigns it a more
southern position, placing it at Tash-kurghan, an ancient
city which was of old the capital of the Sarik-kul
territory, a district lying between Yarkand and Badak-
shan, and known to the Chinese as Ko-panto. The walls
of Tash-kurghan are built of unusually large blocks of
stone. It was no doubt, Sir Henry remarks, owing to
the massive materials of which it was built, that it
received the name of Tash-kurghan or the ‘ Stone Fort,’
and it seems to have every claim to represent the
AtOuvos mupyos of Ptolemy, where the caravans rendez-
voused before entering China, in preference to Tashkand
or Ush, which have been selected as the site of the Stone
Tower by other geographers.’’—Jour, R. Geog. Soc,
vol. XLII, p. 327.

13

scheni’? or 26,280 stadia, and from the Stone
Tower to Séra, the metropolis of the Séres, at a
7 months’ journey or 36,200 stadia as reckoned
along the same parallel. Now in neither
case has he made the proper deductions for the
excess caused by deviations ; and for the second
route he falls into the same absurdity as when
he estimated the distance from the Garamantes
to Agisymba.** § 5. Where he had to deduct
above half of the stadia in the march of the 3
months and 14 days, since sucha march could not
possibly have been accomplished without halting.

10 According to Herodotos (lib. II, c. vi), the schoinos
was equal to two Persian parasangs or 60 stadia, but it
was a very vague and uncertain measure, varying as
Strabo informs us (lib. XVII, c. i, 24) from 30to 120
stadia. In the case before us, it was taken as equivalent
to the parasang of 30 stadia and afforded with correction
some approximation to the truth.

u “The Roman arms had been carried during the
reign of Augustus (B. C.19) as faras the land of the
Garamantes, the modern Fezzan, and though the
Roman Emperors never attempted to establish their
dominion over the country, they appear to have per-
manently maintained friendly relations with its rulers,
which enabled their officers to make use of the oasis of the
Garamantes as their point of departure from which to
penetrate further into the interior. Setting out from
thence, a General named Septimius Plancus ‘arrived at
the land of the Ethiopians, after a march of 3 months
towards the sovth.’ Another Commander named Julius
Maternus, apparently ata later date, setting out from
Leptis Magna, proceeded from thence to Garama, where
he united his forces with those of the king of the
Garamantes, who was himself undertaking a_ hostile
expedition against the Ethiopians, and their combined
armies ‘after marching for four months towards the
south,’ arrived at a country inhabited by Ethiopians,
called Agisymba, in which rhinoceroses abounded.’’—
Bunbury, Hist. of Anc. Geog., vol. II, pp. 522-3.

14

The necessity for halting would be still more
urgent when the march was one which occupied
7 months. § 6. But the former march was ac-
complished even by the king of the country him-
self, who would naturally use every precaution,
and the weather besides was all throughout
most propitious. But the route from the Stone
Tower to Séra is exposed to violent storms, for
as he himself assumes, it lies under the parallels
of the Hellespont and Byzantium,*’ so that
the progress of travellers would be frequently
interrupted. § 7. Now it was by means of
commerce this became known, for Marinos tells
us that one Maés, a Makedonian, called also
Titianus, who was a merchant by hereditary
profession, had written a book giving the
measurement in question, which he had obtained
not by visiting the Séres in person, but from
the agents whom he had sent to them. But
Marinos seems to have distrusted accounts
borrowed from traders. § 8, In giving, for
instance, on the authority of Philémon, the
length of Ivernia (Ireland) at a 20 days’ journey,
he refuses to accept this estimate, which was
got, he tells us, from merchants, whom he
reprobates as a class of men too much engrossed
with their own proper business to care about
ascertaining the truth, and who also from mere
vanity frequently exaggerated distances. So

*2 Lat. 40° 1’—Lat. of Tash-kurghan.

15

too, in the case before us, it is manifest that
nothing in the course of the 7 months’ journey
was thought worthy either of record or remem-
brance by the travellers except the prodigious
time taken to perform it.

Cap. 12.

§ 1. Taking all this into consideration, to-
gether with the fact that the route does not he
along oneand the same parallel (the Stone Tower
being situated near the parallel of Byzantium,
and Séra lying farther south than the parallel
through the Hellespont) it would appear but
reasonable in this case also to diminish by not
less than a half the distance altogether traver-
sed in the 7 months’ journey, computed at 36,200
stadia, and so let us reduce the number of
stadia which these represent at the equator
by one-half only, and we thus obtain (22,625)
stadia or 45} degrees.*® § 2. For it would
be absurd, and show a want of proper judg-
ment, if, when reason enjoins us to cur-
tail the length of both routes, we should
follow the injunction with respect to the
African route, to the length of which there
1s the obvious objection, wiz., the species of
animals in the neighbourhood of Agisymba,

13 36,200 stadia along the parallel of Rhodes are equi-
valent, according to Ptolemy’s system, to 45,250 stadia
along the equator, and this sum reduced by a half givee
the figures in the text,

16

which cannot bear to be transplanted from
their own climate to another, while we refuse
to follow the injunction with regard to the
route from the Stone Tower, because there is
not a similar objection to its length, seeing that
the temperature all along this route is uniform,
quite independently of its being longer or
shorter. Just as if one who reasons according
to the principles of philosophy, could not,
unless the case were otherwise clear, arrive at
a sound conclusion.**

§ 3. With regard again to the first of the two
Asiatic routes, that, I mean which leads from
the Euphrates to the Stone Tower, the estimate
of 870 schent must be reduced to 800 only, or
24,000 stadia, on account ofdeviations. § 4. We

14 Marinos was aware that Agisymba lay in a hot
climate, from the fact that its neighbourhood was report-
ed to be a favourite resort for rhinoceroses, and he was
thus compelled to reduce his first estimate of its distance,
which would have placed it in far too cold a latitude
for these animals, which are found only in hot regions.
But no such palpable necessity compelled him to reduce
his estimate of the distance from the Stone Tower to the
Metropolis of the Séres, for here the route had an equa-
ble temperature, as it did not recede from the equator
but lay almost uniformly along the same parallel of
latitude A little reflexion, however, might have shown
Marinos that his enormous estimate of the distance to
the Seric Metropolis required reduction as much as the
distance to Agisymba, though such a cogent argument as
that which was based on the habitat of the rhinoccros
was not in this instance available. It is on the very
face of it absurd to suppose that a caravan could have
marched through a difficult and unknown country for
7 months consecutively at an average progress of 170
stadia (about 20 miles) daily.

1?

may accept as correct his figures for the entire
distance as the several stages had been fre-
quently traversed and had therefore been
measured with accuracy. But that there
were numerous deviations is evident from
what Marinos himself tells us. § 5. For the
route from the passage of the Euphrates at
Hierapolis through Mesopotamia to the
Tigris, and the route thence through the
Garamaioi of Assyria, and through
Media to Ekbatana and the Kaspian
Gates, and through Parthia to Hekatom-
pylos Marinos considers to he along the
parallel which passes through Rhodes, for he
traces (in his map) this parallel as passing
through these regions. § 6. But the route from
Hekatompylos to the capital city of
Hyrkania must, of necessity, diverge to the
north, because that city lies somewhere between
the parallel of Smyrna and that of the Helles-
pont, since the parallel of Smyrna is traced as
passing below Hyrkania and that of the Helles-
pont through the southern parts of the Hyrka-
nian Sea from the city bearing the same name,
which lies a little farther north. § 7. But,
again, the route herefrom to Antiokheia
(Merv) of Margiana through Areia, at first
bends towards the south, since Areia lies
under the same parallel as the Kaspian Gates,
and then afterwards turns towards the north,
Antiokheia being situated under the parallel of

18

the Hellespont.** The route after this runs
in an eastward direction to Baktra whence
it turns towards the north in ascending the
mountains of the Kémédoi, and then in
passing through these mountains it pursues
a southern course as far as the ravine that
opens into the plain country. § 8. For the
northern parts of the mountain region and
those furthest to the west where the ascent
begins, are placed by him under the parallel of
Byzantium, and those in the south and the
east under the parallel of the Hellespont.
For this reason, he says, that this route makes
a detour of equal length in opposite directions,
that in advancing to the east it bends towards
the south, and thereafter probably runs up
towards the north for 50 scheent, till it reaches
the Stone Tower. § 9. For to quote his own

15 The actual latitudes cf the places here mentioned
may be compared with those of Ptolemy :—

Real Lat. Ptolemy’s Lat.

Byzantium. ........ccc ce ccccsecee eee 41° 43° 5’
Hellespont .....................66. 402 41° 15
SMYMA isis denssiecieacos BO: 88° 35’
TASS: eivetnb aca deniceaeooed 36° 35’
BnOd68. sicshioticl enn es 36° 24 36° 25’
Hierapolis............... cece eee BE? 28’ 36° 15’
Ekbatana, ...............ccsceseensss 34° 50’ 37° 45°
Kaspian Gates..................... 83° 30’ 37°

Hekatompylos ..................... 35° 40° 37° 50
Antiokheia (Merv) ............... 87° 35’ 40° 20’
Baktra (Balkh) .................. 36° 40’ 41°

Stone Tower (Tashkand) ...... 42° 58 43°

Sé¢ra Metropolis (Ho-nan)...... 38° 35° 33° 58

19

words, ‘‘ When the traveller has ascended the
ravine he arrives at the Stone Tower, after
which the mountains that trend to the east
unite with Imaus, the range that runs up to the
north from Palimbothra.”’ § 10. If, then, to
the 60 degrees made up of the 24,000 stadia, we
add the 451 degrees which represent the dis-
tance from the Stone Tower to Séra, we get
105; degrees as the distance between the
Euphrates and Séra as measured along the
parallel of Rhodes.*® § 11. But, further, we

16 Saint-Martin identifies Séra,the Metropolis of the
Séres, with a site near Ho-nan-fu. He says, (Etudes,’ p.
432) ‘‘ At the time when the caravan journey reported by
Maés was made (in the first half of the first century of
our era), the Han surnamed Eastern held the reins of
government, and their residence was at Lo-yang near
the present City of Ho-nan-fou, not far from the southern
bank of the lower Hoang-ho. It is there then we should
look to find the place which in their ignorance of the
language of the country, and in their disdain for barbar-
ous names, the Greek traders designated merely as the
Metropolis of the Séres.’”’ The road these traders took
appears to have been the same by which Hiuen-Tsiang
travelled towards India.

We may here insert for comparison with Ptolemy’s dis-
tances two itineraries, one by Strabo and the other by
Pliny. Strabo (lib. XI, c. viii, 9) says: ‘‘ These are the
distances which he (Eratosthenes) gives :—

Stadia.
From the Kaspian Sea to the Kyros about ... 1,800
Thence to the Kaspian Gates ........ 5,600

Thence to Alexandreia of the Areioi (Herat).. 6, 400
Thence to Baktra, called also Zariaspa (Balkh) 3,870
Thence to the Jaxartes, which Alexander

reached, about ........ eee cece cee eee ca tene cee 5,000
Making a total of .. 2,670.”
He also assigns the “following ‘distances on the

Kaspian Gates to India :— Stadia.
“To Hekatompylos .... veces. 1,960

To Alexandreia of the Areioi (Herat)... Wier soxe 4,530

20

can infer from the number of stadia which he
gives as the distance between successive places
lying along the same parallel, that the distance
from the Islands of the Blest to the sacred
Promontory in Spain (Cape St. Vincent), is
23 degrees, and the distance thence to the
mouth of the Betis (Guadalquivir), the same.

Stadia.
Thence to Prophthasia in Dranga (a hittle
north of lake Zarah ................0ccce ce ene eee eee 1,600
Thence to the City Arakhotos (Ulan Robit)... 4, 120
Then to Ortospana (Kabul) on the 3 roads

from Baktra ....... wiiiitwigerme “egQOO
Thence to the confines of India .......0..0000... 1,000
Which together amount to ............... . 15,300.’”
The sum total however is only... ee 15,210

Pliny (lib. VI, c. xxi} says: “ Diognetus and Baeton, his
(Alexander’s) measurers yhave recorded that from the Kas-
pianGates to Hekatompylos of the Parthians there were
as many miles as we have stated, thence to Alexandria
Arion a city built by that king, 575 miles, to Prophthasia
of the Drangae 198 miles, to the town of the Arakhosii
565 miles, to Hortospanum 175 miles, thence to Alexan-
der’s town (Opiané) 50 miles. In some copies numbers
differing from these are found. They state that the last-
named city lay at the foot of Caucasus ; from that the
distance to the Cophes and Peucolatis, a town of the
Indians, was 237 miles, and thence to the river Indus and
town of Taxila 60 miles, to the Hydaspes, a famous river,
120 miles, to the Hypasis, no mean river (IXXXIXI] 390—
which was the limit cf Alexander’s progress, although
ke crossed the river and dedicated altars on the far-off
bank, as the letters of the king himself agree in stat-
ing.” The Kaspian Gates formeda point of great import-
ance in ancient Geography, and many of the meridians
were measured from it. The pass has been clearly
identified with that now knownas the Sirdar Pass between
Verimin and Kishlak in Khowar. Arrian states that the
distance from the city of Rhagai to the entrance of the
Gates was a one day’s march. This was, however, a
forced march, as the ruins of Rhagai (now Rai, about 5
miles from Tehran) are somewhere about 30 miles distant
from the Pass.

From the Betis to Kalpé, and the entrance of
the Straits, 2} degrees. From the Straits to
Karallis in Sardinia, 25 degrees. From Karallis
to Lilybaion, in Sicily, 45 degrees. From this
Cape to Pakhynos, 3 degrees. Then again,
from Pakhynos to Tainaros, in Lakonia, 10
degrees. Thence to Rhodes, 84 degrees. From
Rhodes to Issus, 11} degrees, and finally from
Issos to the Euphrates, 24 degrees.'’? § 12. The
Bunbury (vol. IJ, p. 638) exhibits the longitudes of the
principal points in the Mediterranean as given by

Ptolemy, and the actual longitudes of the same points
computed from Ferro:

Longitude in Real longitude

Ptolemy. E. of Ferro.
Sacred Promontory ......... 2° 30' 9° 20'
Mouth of Betis ............... 5° 20 12°
Calpe (at mouth of Straits). 7° 30’ 13°.
Caralis in Sardinia............ 82° 30’ 27° 30
Lilybeum in Sicily ............ 37° 30° 45'
Pachynus (Prom.) in Sicily. 40° 33° 25'
Tzenarus (Prom.)............... 50° 40° 50’
Bhodes oo... cc sccescenseeeesseee 98" 20 46° 45°
TsS08 .esse0::: . 69° 20 54° 30’

The same authority observes (vol. II, p. 564) ‘‘ Pto-
lemy thus made the whole interval from the Sacred
Cape to Issus, which really comprises only about 45° 15’
to extend over not less than 67 degrees of longitude, and
the length of the Mediterranean itself from Calpe to
Issus, to amount to 62 degrees: rather more than 20
degrees beyond the truth. It is easy to detect one
principal source of this enormous error. Though the
distances above given are reported by Ptolemy in de-
grees of longitude, they were computed by Marinos
himself from what he calls stadiasmi, that is from dis-
tances given in maritime itineraries and reported in
stadia. In other words, he took the statements and esti-
mates of preceding authorities and converted them into
degrees of longitude, according to his own calculation
that a degree on the equator was equal to 500 stadia, and

22

sum of these particular distances gives a total

of 72 degrees, consequently the entire length of

the known world between the meridian of the

Islands of the Blest and that of the Séres is

177; degrees, as has been already shown.*®
Cap. 13.

§ 1. That such is the length of the inhabited
world may also be inferred from his estimate
of the distances in a voyage from India to the
Gulf of the Sinai and Kattigara, if the
sinuosities of the coast and irregularity of the
navigation be taken into account, together
with the positions as drawn into nearer
proximity in the projections ; for, he says, that
beyond the Cape called Kory where the
Kolkhic Gulf terminates, the Argaric Gulf
begins, and that the distance thence to the
City of Kouroula, which is situated to the
north-east of K dry is 3,400 stadia. § 2. The

consequently a degree of longitude in latitude 36° would
be equal (approximately) to 400 stadia.’’ The total
length of the Mediterranean computed from the stadias-
moi must have been 24,800. This was an improvement
on the estimate of Eratosthenes, but was still excessive.
In the ancient mode of reckoning sea distances the
tendency was almost uniformly towards exaggeration.

18 The different corrections to be applied to Ptolemy’s
eastern longitudes have been calculated by Sir Henry
Rawlinson to amount to three-tenths, which is within
one-seventieth part of the empirical correction used by
M. Gossellin. [If we take one-fifth from Ptolemy’s
longitude of a place, and deduct 17° 43’ for the W. longi-
tude of Ferro, we obtain very approximately the modern
English longitude. Thus, for Barygaza, Ptolemy’s
longitude is 118°15’ and 113°15'—22°39'—17°43' =72°53',
or eure less than the true longitude W. of Greenwich.

23

distance right across may, therefore, be csti-
mated at about 2,030 stadia, since we have to
deduct a third because of the navigation
having followed the curvature of the Gulf, and
have also to make allowances for irregularities
in the length of the courses run. $3. If now we
further reduce this amount by a third, because
the sailing, though subject to interruption, was
taken as continuous, there remain 1,250 stadia,
determining the position of Kouronla as situ-
ated north-east from Kory. § 4. If now this
distance be referred to a line running parallel
to the equator and towards the East, and we
reduce its length by half in accordance with
the intercepted angle, we shall have as the dis-
tance between the meridian of Kouroula
and that of Kéry, 675 stadia, or 1} degree,
since the parallels of these places do not differ
materially from the great circle.*”

§ 5. But to proceed : the course of the voyage
from K ouroura lies, he says, to the south-
east as far as Paloura, the distance being
9,450 stadia. Here, if we deduct as before one-
third for the irregularities in the length of the
courses, we shall have the distance on account
of the navigation having been continuous to

1° By the intercepted angle is meant the angle con-
tained by two straight lines drawn from Kéry, one
running north-east to Kouroula and the other parallel
to the Equator. In Ptolemy’s map Kouroula is so placed
that its distance in a straight line from Kory is about

double the distance between the meridians of those two
places.

24

the south-east about 6,300 stadia, § 6, And
if we deduct from this in ike manner as before
one-sixth, in order to find the distance parallel
to the equator, we shall make the interval
between the meridians of these two places 5,250
stadia, or 103 degrees.

§ 7. At this place the Gangetic Gulf begins,
which he estimates to be in circuit 19,000
stadia. The passage across it from Paloura
to Sada ina direct line from west to east
is 1,300 stadia. Here, then, we have but
one deduction to make, viz., one-third on ac-
count of the irregularity of the navigation,
leaving as the distance between the meridians
of Paloura and Sada 8,670 stadia, or 173 de-
grees. § 8. The voyage is continued onward
from Sada to the City of Tamala, a dis-
tance of 3,500 stadia, in a south-eastward
direction. If athird be here again deducted on
account of irregularities, we find the length of
the continuous passage to be 2,330 stadia, but we
must further take into account the divergence
towards the south-east, and deduct one-sixth, so
we find the distance between the meridians in
question to be 1,940 stadia, or 3° 50’ nearly.
§ 9. He next sets down the passage from
Tamala to the Golden Khersonese at 1,600
stadia, the direction being still towards the
south-east, so that after making the usual de-
ductions there remain as the distance between
the two meridians 900 stadia, or 1° 48’. The

25

sum of these particulars makes the distance
from Cape K ory to the Golden Khersoncse
to be 34° 48’,

Car. 14.

§ 1. Marinos does not state the number of
stadia in the passage from the Golden Kherso-
nese to Kattigara, but says that one Alexander
had written that the land thereafter faced the
south, and that those sailing along this coast
reached the city of Zaba in 20 days, and by
continuing the voyage from Zaba southward,
but keeping more to the left, they arrived after
some days at Kattigara. § 2. He then makes
this distance very great by taking the expres-
sion ‘‘some days” to mean “many days,”
assigning as his reason that the days occupicd
by the voyage were too many to be counted,—a
most absurd reason, it strikes me. § 3. For
would even the number of days it takes to go
round the whole world be past counting? And
was thereanything to prevent Alexander writing

9

“many” instead of “some,” especially when
we find him saying that Dioskoros had reported
that the voyage from Rhapta to Cape
Prasum took ‘‘many days.” One might in
fact with far more reason take “‘ some” to mean
“Ca, few,” for we have been wont to censure

this sella (of e eprcaeeany. fe § 4 4. So now lest we

ee To eaapant fee “tie seeming caprice w wich: led
Marinos to take the expression some days as equivalent
to ever so many days it has been supposed that he had

46

26

should appear to fall ourselves into the samcerror,
that of adapting conjectures about distances
to some number already fixed on, let us compare
the voyage from the Golden Khersonese to

adopted the theory that Kattigara, the furthest point
eastward that had been reached by sea, was situated
nearly under the same meridian as Séra, the furthest
point in the same direction that had been reached by
land. Unfortunately the expression used by Alexander
some days did not square with this theory, and it was
all the worse in consequence for that expression. ‘‘ The
result,’’ says Mr. Bunbury (vol. II, p. 587), ‘‘ derived by
Marinos from these calculations was to place Kattigara
at a distance of not less than 100 degrees of longitude,
or nearly 50,000 stadia, east of Cape Kory; and as he
placed that promontory in 125}° of longitude east of the
Fortunate Islands, he arrived at the conclusion that the
total length of the inhabited world was, in round num-
bers, 225°, equivalent, according to his calculation to
112,500 stadia. As he adopted the system of Poseidonios,
which gave only 180,000 stadia for the circumference of
the globe, he thus made the portion of it which he sup-
posed to be known, to extend over nearly two-thirds
of the whole circumference. This position of Cape
Kory, which was adopted by Ptolemy as a position well
established, was already nearly 34° too far to the east ;
but it was by giving the enormous extension we have
pointed out to the coast of Asia beyond that promon-
tory, that he fell into this stupendous error, which though
partly corrected by Ptolemy, was destined to exercise so
great an influence upon the future progress of geogra-
phy.’’? Columbus by accepting Ptolemy’s estimate
of the circumference of the globe greatly under-esti-
mated the distance between the western shores of the
Atlantic and the eastern shores of Asia, and hence was
led to undertake his memorable enterprise with all the
greater hope and courage.

With reference to the position of Cape Kéry as given
by Ptolemy, Bunbury says (Vol. II, p. 537, note): ‘‘ Cape
Kory is placed by Ptolemy, who on this point apparently
follows Marinos, in 125° E. Longitude. It is really situ-
ated 80° KE. of Greenwich and 98° E. of Ferro; but as
Ptolemy made a fundamental error in the position of his
primary meridian of nearly 7° this must be added to the
amount of his crror in this instinee. He himself states
that Cape Kory was 120° EF. of the mouth of the Betis,
the real difference of longitude being only 36°20.”

27

Kattigara. consisting of the 20 days to Zaba
and the ‘‘some days” thence to Kattigara with
the voyage from Ardmata to Cape Prasum, and
we find that the voyage from Arédmata to
Rhapta took also 20 days as reported by
Theophilos, and the voyage from Rhapta to
Prasum “many more days” as reported by
Dioskoros, so that we may set side by side the
“‘some days” with the ‘“‘many days” and like
Marinos take them to be equivalent. § 5. Since
then, we have shown both by reasoning and by
stating ascertained facts, that Prasum is under
the parallel of 16° 25 in South latitude, while
the parallel through Cape Arémata is 4° 15’
in North latitude, making the distance between
thetwocapes 20° 40’, we might with good reason
make the distance from the Golden Khersonese
to Zaba and thence to Kattigara just about the
same. § 6. Itis not necessary to curtail the
distance from the Golden Khersonese to Zaba,
since as the coast faces the south it must run
parallel with the equator. We must reduce,
however, the distance from Zaba to Kattigara,
since the course of the navigation is towards the
south and the east, in order that we may find
the position parallel to the equator. § 7. If
again, in our uncertainty as to the real excess of
the distances, we allot say one-half of the degrees
to each of these distances, and from the 13° 20’
between Zaba and Kattigara we deduct a third
on account of the divergence, we shall have the

28

distance from the Golden Khersonese to Katti-
gara along a line parallel to the equator of about
17°10’. § 8. But it has been shown that the
distance from Cape Kory to the Golden Kher-
sonese is 34° 48’, and so the entire distance from
Kory to Kattigara will be about 52°.

§ 9. But again, the meridian which passes
through the source of the River Indus is a little
further west than the Northern Promontory of
Taprobané, which according to Marinos is
opposite to Kory, from which the meridian
which passes through the mouths of the River
Betis is a distance of 8 hours or 120°. Nowas
this meridian is 5° from that of the Islands of
the Blest, the meridian of Cape Ko6ry is more
than 125° from the meridian of the Islands of
the Blest. But the meridian through Kattigara
is distant from that through the Islands of the
Blest a little more than 177° in the latitude of
Kory, each of which contains about the same
number of stadia as a degree reckoned along
the parallel of Rhodes. § 10. The entire length
then of the world to the Metropolis of the Sinai
may be taken at 180 degrees or an interval of 12
hours, since it is agreed on all hands that this
Metropolis lies further east than Kattigara, so
that the length along the parallel of Rhodes
will be 72,000 stadia.

Cap. 17, (part).

§ 3. Forall who have crossed the seas to those

places agree in assuring me that the district of

29

Sakhalités in Arabia, and the Gulf of the same
name, lie to the east of Syagros, and not to
the west of it as stated by Marinos, who also
makes Simylla, the emporium in India, to be
further west not only than Cape Ko mari, but
also than the Indus. § 4. Butaccording to the
unanimous testimony both of those who have
sailed from us to those places and have for a
long time frequented them, and also of those
who have come from thence to us, Simylla,
which by the people of the country is called
Timoula, hes only to the south of the
mouths of the river, and not also to west of
them. § 5. From the same informants we have
also learned other particulars regarding India
and its different provinces, and its remote parts
as far as the Golden Khersonese and onward
thence to Kattigara. In sailing thither, the
voyage, they said, was towards the east, and in
returning towards the west, but at the same
time they acknowledged that the period which
was occupied in making the voyages was neither
fixed nor regular. The country of the Séres and
their Metropolis was situated to the north of
the Sinai, but the regions to the eastward of
both those people were unknown, abounding
it would appear, in swamps, wherein grew
reeds that were of a large size and so close to-
gether that the inhabitants by means of them
could go right across from one end of aswamp
to the other. In travelling from these parts there

30

was not only the road that led to Baktriané
by way of the Stone Tower, but also a road
that led into India through Palimbothra. The
road again that led from the Metropolis of
the Sinai to the Haven at Kattigara runs in a
south-west direction, and hence this road does
not coincide with the meridian which passes
through Séra and Kattigara, but, from what
Marinos tell us, with some one or other of those
meridians that are further east.

I may conclude this prefatory matter by quoting
from Mr. Bunbury his general estimate of the
value of Ptolemy’s Indian Geography as set forth
in his criticism of Ptolemy’s Map of India.

His strictures, though well grounded, may per-
haps be considered to incline to the side of severity.
He says (vol. II, pp. 642-3), “Some excellent re-
marks on the portion of Ptolemy’s work devoted
to India, the nature of the different materials of
which he made use, and the manner in which he
employed them, will be found in Colonel Yule’s
introduction to his Map of India, in Dr. Smith’s
Atlas of Ancient Geography (pp. 22-24). These
remarks are indeed in great measure applicable
to the mode of proceeding of the Alexandrian
Geographer in many other cases also, though the
result is particularly conspicuous in India from the
fulness of the information—crude and undigested
as it was—which he had managed to bring to-
gether. The result, as presented to us in the tables
of Ptolemy, is a map of utter confusion, out of
which it is very difficult to extract in a few
instances any definite conclusions.” The attempt

31

of Lassen to identify the various places mentioned
by Ptolemy, is based throughout upon the funda-
mental error of supposing that the geographer
possessed a Map of India similar to our own, and
that we have only to compare the ancient and
modern names in order to connect the two. As
Col. Yule justly observes: ‘‘ Practically, he
(Lassen) deals with Ptolemy’s compilation as if
that Geographer had possessed a collection of real
Indian surveys, with the data systematically
co-ordinated. The fact is, that if weshould take one
of the rude maps of India that appeared in the
16th century (e.g. in Mercator or in Lindschoten),
draw lines of latitude and longitude, and then more
Ptolemaico construct tables registermg the co-
ordinates of cities, sources and confluences as they
appeared in that map, this would be the sort of
material we have to deal with in Ptolemy’s India.”
But, in fact, the case is much stronger than Col.
Yule puts it. For such a map as he refers to, of the
16th century, however rude, would give a generally
correct idea of the form and*configuration of the
Indian Peninsula. But this, as we have scen,
was utterly misconceived by Ptolemy. Hence
he had to fit his data, derived from various sources,
such as maritime and land itineraries, based upon
real experience, into a framework to which they
were wholly unsuited, and this could only be
effected by some Procrustean process, or rather
by a repetition of such processes, concer ning which
we are left wholly in the dark.

Col. Yule’s map of Ancient India is undoubtedly
by far the best that has yet been produced : it
js indecd the only attempt to interpret Ptolemy

32

data, upon which such a map must mainly be
founded upon anything like sound critical prin-
ciples. But it must be confessed that the result
is far from encouraging. So small a proportion
of Ptolemy’s names can find a place at all, and
so many of those even that appear on the map are
admitted by its author to rest upon very dubious
authority; that we remain almost wholly in the
dark as to the greater part of his voluminous
catalogues ; and are equally unable to ideutify the
localities which he meant to designate, and to
pronounce an opinion upon the real value of his
materials.”

Boox VII.

Contents.

Description of the furthest parts of Greater
Asia, according to the existing provinces and
Satrapies.

1. [Tenth Map|
of India within the River Ganges.
2. [Eleventh Map |
of India beyond the Ganges.
of the Sinaz.
8. [Twelfth Map}
of the Island of Taprobané and the
islands surrounding it.
4. Outline Sketch of the Mup of the Inha-
bited World.
Delineation of the Armillary Sphere with
the Inhabited World.
Sketch of the World in Projection.
[5. There are 400 Provinces and 30 Maps. |

33

Cap. I.

Description of India within the Ganges.

§ 1. India within the river Ganges is bounded
on the west by the Paropanisadai and Ara-
khésia and Gedrosia along their eastern sides
already indicated; on the north by Mount
Imaés along the Sogdiaioi and the Sakai lying
above it; on the east by the river Ganges ;
and on the south and again on the west by a
portion of the Indian Ocean. The circuit of
the coast of this ocean is thus described :—

2. InSyrastréné, ontheGulfcalled Kan-
thi, a roadstead and harbour..109° 30’ 20°
The most western mouth of

the River Indus called

DAPADE:, vnwisoweduluncbenseasse 110° 20’ 19° 50°
The next mouth called Sin-

tHOM * <apinneluieticcnonnocehens 110° 40° 19° 50’
The 3rd mouth called Khry-

soun (the Golden) ......... 111° 20° 19° 50’
The 4th called Kariphron .,.111° 40’ 19° 50°
The 5th called Sapara ......... 112° 30’ 19° 50’
The 6th called Sabalaessa ...113° 20° 15’
The 7th called Lonibaré ...... 113° 30’ 20° 15’

3. Bardaxéma, a town ...113° 40’ 19° 40’
Syrastra, a village .......00... 114° 19° 30!
Monoglésson, a mart ......... 114° 10’ 18° 40°

Comment.—Strabo, following Hratosthenes, re-
garded the Indus as the boundary of India on the
west, and this is the view which has been generally
prevalent. Ptelemy,however,included within India

-

oa G

34

the regions which lay immediately to the west of
that river, comprehending considerable portions
of the countries now known as Baldichistén and
Afghanistan. He was fully justified in this de-
termination, since many places beyond the Indus,
as the sequel will show, bore names of Sanskrit
origin, and such parts were ruled from the earliest
times down to the Muhammadan conquests
by princes of Indian descent. The western
boundary as given by Ptolemy would be roughly
represented by a line drawn from the mouth of
the Indus and passing through the parts adjacent
to Kandahar, Ghazni, Kabul, Balkh, and even
places beyond. The Paropanisadai inhabit-
ed the regions lying south of the mountain range
called Paropanisos, now known as the Central
Hindd-Kash. One of these towns was Ortospana,
which has been identified with the city of
Kabul, the Karoura of our author. He gives
as the eastern boundary of the Paropanisadai
a line drawn south from the sources of the river
Oxus through the Kaukasian Mountains (the
eastern portion of the Hindd-Kish) to a point
lying in long. 119° 30’ and lat. 39°. Arakh6o-
sia lay to the south of the Paropanisadai—its
chief city was Arakhétos, whose name, according
to Rennell, is preserved in Arokhaj. There isa
river of the same name which has been iden-
tified with the Helmand (the Etymander or
Erymanthos of the ancients) but also and more
probably with the Urghand-ab or Arkand-adb,
which passes by Kandahiér. Gedrdésia, the
modern Baldichistan, had for its eastern boundary
the River Indus. The boundary of India on the

30

north was formed by Mount Imaés (Sansk. hima,
cold), a name which was at first applied by the
Greeks to the Hindd-Kiash and the chain of the
Himalayas running parallel to the equator, but
which was gradually in the course of time trans-
ferred to the Bolor range which runs from north
to south and intersects them. Ptolemy, however,
places Imaés further east than the Bolor, and
in the maps which accompany his Geography, this
meridian chain, as he calls it, is prolonged up to
the most northernly plains of the Irtish and Obi.

Sogdiana lay to the north of Baktria and
abutted on Skythia, both towards the north
and towards the west. The name has been
preserved in that of Soghd, by which the country
along the Kohik from Bokhard to Samarkand has
always been known. Our author places the Sogdian
Mountains (the Pamir range) at the sources of the
Oxus, and the mountains of the Kémédai be-
tween the sources of that river and the Jaxartes.

The Sakai were located to the east of the
Sogdians—Ptolemy describes them as nomadic,
as without towns and as living m woods and caves.
He specifies as their tribes the K aratai (proba-
bly connected with the Kiratai of India), the
Komaroi, the Kémédai, the Massage-
tai, the Grynaioi Skythai, the Toodr-
nai and the Byltai. The Sakai it would
appear therefore were the Mountaineers of K&fi-
ristan, Badakshan, Shignén, Roshan, Baltistén
or Little Tibet, &c.

Syrastréné and Lariké.

Syrastréné:—The name is formed from the

Sanskrit Surdshtra (now Sorath) the ancient

36

name of the Peninsula of Gujarat. It is men-
tioned in the Periplis of the Erythraean Sea as
the sea-board of Abéria, and is there praised for
the great fertility of its soil, for its cotton fabrics,
and for the superior stature of its inhabitants.

Kanthi:—The Gulf of this name is now called
the Gulf of Kachh. It separates Kachh, the
south coast of which is still called Kantha,
from the Peninsula of Gujarat. In the Periplis
the gulf is called Baraké and is described as of
very dangerous navigation. In Ptolemy, Baraké
is the name of an island in the Gulf.

Two mouths only of the Indus are mentioned
by the followers of Alexander and by Strabo.
The Periplis gives the same number (7) as
Ptolemy. There are now Il, but changes are
continually taking place. Sagapa, the western
mouth, was explored by Alexander. It separates
from the main stream below Thatha. In the
chronicles of Sindh it is called Sagara, from which
perhaps its present name Ghara, may be derived.
It has long ceased to be navigable.

Sinth6n:—This has been identified with the
Piti branch of the Indus, one of the mouths of
the Baghar River. This branch is otherwise
called the Sindhi Khrysoun. This is the Kediwart
mouth.

Khariphron:—Cunningham identifies this
with the Ky&ar river of the present day which, he
says, leads right up to the point where the southern
branch of the Ghara joins the main river near
Lari-bandar.

Sapara:—this is the Wari mouth.

Sabalaessa is now the Sir mouth.

37

Lonibaré in Sanskrit is Lonavari (or Louava-
dé, or Lavanavari or Lavanavat&.7* It is now the
Kort, but is called also the Launi which preserves
the old name.

Bardaxéma:—This, according to Yule, is now
Pur-bandar, but Dr. Burgess prefers Srinagar, a
much older place in the same district, having
near it a small village called Bardiya, which, as he
thinks, may possibly be a reminiscence of the
Greek name.

Syrastra:—This in the Prakritized form is
Sorath. It has been identified by Lassen with
Junagadh, a place of great antiquity and historical
interest in the interior of the Peninsula, about 40
miles eastward from the coast at Navi-bandar.
The meaning of the name is the old fort. The
place was anciently called Girnagara, from its
vicinity to the sacred mountain of Girnar, near
which is the famous rock inscribed with the edicts
of Asdka, Skandagupta and Rudra Dama. Yule
identifies Syrastra with Navi-bandar, a port at the
mouth of the Bhadar, the largest river of the
Peninsula, said to be fed by 99 tributaries. Ju-
nagadh was visited by Hiuen Tsiang, who states
that after leaving the kingdom of Valabhi (near
Bhaunagar) he went about 100 miles to the west
and reached the country of Su-la-ch’a (Saurash-
tra) that was subject to the kingdom of Valabhi
See Tartkh-i-Sorath, edited by Dr. Burgess, pp. 33-
199.

Monog1losson:—tThis is now represented by
Mangrol, a port on the S. W. coast of the Penin-

21 Lavana is the Sauskyit word for salt.

38

sula below Navi-bandar. It is a very populous
place, with a considerable traffic, and is tributary
to Junagadh.

4. In Lariké.
Mouth of the River Méphis...114° 18° 207

Pakidaré, a village ............ 113° 17° 50/

Cape Maled .........ccceeesee ees 111° 17° 30’
5. In the Gulf of Bary gaza.

Kaman .....,ccsscesecs Seneianaltes 112° 17°

Mouth of the River Namados 112° 17° 45’

Na@usaripa .o..ccscesesccesersenees 112° 30’ 16° 380’

Poulipoula........eceeeseess w«...L12° 30’ 16°

Lariké, according to Lassen, represents the
Sansk. Rashtrikainits Prakrit form Latika.
Lar-desa, however, the country of Lar (Sansk.
Lata) was the ancient name of the territory
of Gujarét, and the northern parts of Konkan,
and Lariké may therefore be a formation from
Lar with the Greek termination iké appended. The
two great cities of Barygaza (Bharoch) and Ozéné
(Ujjain) were in Lariké, which appears to have been
a political rather than a geographical division.

Maleo must have been a projection of the
land somewhere between the mouth of the Mahi
and that of Narmadi—but nearer to the former
if Ptolemy’s indication be correct.

The Gulf of Barygaza, now the Gulf of
Khambhat, was so called from the great com-
mercial emporium of the same name (now Bha-
roch) on the estuary of the Narmada at a distance
of about 300 stadia from the Gulf. This river is
called the Namados or Namadés by Ptolemy and
the Namnadios by the Author of the Periplis,

oo

who gives a vivid account of the difficulties attend-
ing the navigation of the gulf and of the estuary
which was subject to bores of great frequency
and violence.

Kamané is mentioned as Kammoné in the
Periplis, where it is located to the south of the
Narmada estuary. Ptolemy probably errs in
placing it to northward of it.

Nausaripa has been identified with Nau-
sari, a place near the coast, about 18 miles south
from Sarat.

Poulipoula is in Yule’s map located at
Sanjan, which is on the coast south from Nausari.
It was perhaps nearer Balsar.

6. Ariaké Sadin6On.

MOU Pala tanobbcuccuaeensnaiannenaes 112° 30’ 15° 30/
Mouth of the River Goaris...112° 15’ 15° 10/
OURO iceveconeesiameciews. ts ....-L11° 30% 15°

Mouth of the River Bénda ...110° 30’ 15°

Simylla, a mart and a cape...110° 14° 4.5/
Hippokoura .......... sal ecauee 111° 45’ 14° 10/
Baltipatna scocc: fssvanvadewsens ..110° 30’ 14° 20’

Ariaké corresponds nearly to Mahd4rdshtra—
the country of the Marathés. It may have been
so called, because its inhabitants being chiefly
Aryans and ruled by Indian princes were there-
by distinguished from their neighbours, who
were either of different descent or subject to
foreign domination. The territory was in Pto-
lemy’s time divided among three potentates, one
of whom belonged to the dynasty of the Sadi-
neis and ruled the prosperous trading commu-
nities that occupied the seaboard. This dynasty

40

is mentioned in the Periplis (cap. 52) whence
we learn that Sandanes after having made
himself master of Kalliena (now Kalyana), which
had formerly belonged to the house of Sara-
ganes the elder, subjected its trade to the severest
restrictions, so that if Greek vessels entered its
port even accidentally, they were seized and sent
under guard to Barygaza, the seat evidently of
the paramount authority. Sadanes, according to
Lassen, corresponds to the Sanskrit word S4d-
hana, which means completion or a perfecter,
and also an agent or representative. By Saraganes
is probably indicated one of the great Sdtakarni or
Andhra dynasty. The Periplis makes Ariaké to
be the beginning of the kingdom of Mambares
and of all India.

Soupara has been satisfactorily identified
by Dr. Burgess with Supdra, a place about 6
miles to the north of Vasai(Bassein). It appears
to have been from very early times an important
centre of trade, and it was perhaps the capital of
the district that lay around it. Among its ruins
have been preserved some monuments, which are
of historical interest, and which also attest its
high antiquity. These are a fragment of a block
of basalt like the rocks of Girn4r, inscribed with
edicts of Asdéka, and an old Buddhist Stipa.
The name of Supara figures conspicuously in the
many learned and elaborate treatises which were
evoked in the course of the famous controversy
regarding the situation of Ophir to which Solomon
despatched the ships he had hired from the
Tyrians. There can now be little doubt that if
Ophir did not mean India itself it designated

4}

some place in India, and probably Supra, which
lay on that part of tlie coast to which the traders
of the west, who took advantage of the monsoon
to cross the ocean, would naturally direct their
course. The name moreover of Supiri is almost
identical with that of Ophir when it assumes, as
it often dees, an initial S, becoming Sdphara as in
the Septuagint form of the name, and Sefir which
is the Coptic name for India, not to mention
other similar forms. (See Benfey’s Jndien,
pp. 30-32).

The mouths of the Goaris and Bénda
Yule takes to be the mouths of the Strait that
isolates Salsette and Bombay. The names repre-
sent, as he thinks, those of the Gdédavari and
Bhima respectively, though these rivers flow
in a direction different from that which Ptolemy
assigns to them, the former discharging into the
Bay of Bengal and the latter into the Krishna,
of which it is the most considerable tributary.
Ptolemy’s rivers, especially those of the Peninsula,
are in many instances so dislocated, that it is
dificult to identify them satisfactorily. It
appears to have been his practice to connect the
river-mouths which he found mentioned in re-
cords of coasting voyages with rivers in the
interior concerning which he had information
from other sources, and whose courses he had
only partially traced. But, as Yule remarks,
with his erroneous outline of the Peninsula this
process was too hazardous and the result often
wrong. Mr. J. M. Campbell, Bo.C.8., would
identify the Goaris with the Vaitarna River,
as Gore is situated upon it and was probably the

6G

42

Jighest point reached by ships sailing up its
stream. The sources of the Vaitarna and the
Godavari are in close propinquity. The Bénda
he would identify with the Bhiwandi River, and
the close similarity of the names favours this
view.

Dounga is placed in Ywle’s map to the
S. E. of Supara on the Strait which separates
Salsette from the mainland. Ptolemy, however,
through his misconception of the configuration
of this part of the coast, places it a whole degree
to the west of Supara. Mr. Campbell, from some
similarity in the names, suggests its identity
with Dugid—a place about 10 miles N. of Bhi-
wandi and near the Vajrabai hot springs. Dugéd,
however, is too far inland to have been here
mentioned by Ptolemy, and moreover, it lies to
the north of Supdra, whereas in Ptolemy’s enu-
meration, which is from north to south, it is
placed after it.

Simylla:—Yule identifies this with Chaul
and remarks: ‘‘ Chaul was still a chief port of
Western India when the Portuguese arrived. Its
position seems to correspond precisely both with
Simylla and with the Saimdr or Jaimir (ze.
Chaimur, the Arabs having no ch) of the Arabian
geographers. In Al-Birdni the coast cities
run: Kambayat, Bahruj, Sindin (Sanjin), Sufdra
(Supara), Tana (near Bombay). “ There you enter
the country of Léran, where is Jaimir.” Istakhri
inverts the position of Sindén and Sufara, but
Saimiar is stillfurthest south.” Inanote he adds:
“Ptolemy mentions that Simylla was called
by the natives Timula (probably Tiamula); and

43

putting together all these forms, Timula, Simylla,
Saimdr, Chaimdr, the real name must have been
something like Chaimul or Chémul, which would
modernize into Chaul, as Chamari and Pramara
into Chauri and Pawar.” Chaul or Chénwal lies
23 miles S. of Bombay. Pandit Bhagvinlal In-
draji, Ph.D., suggested as a better identification
Chimdala in Trombay Island, this being supported
by one of the Kanhéri inscriptions in which
Chimila is mentioned, apparently as a large city,
like Supara and Kalyana in the neighbourhood.
Mr. Campbell thus discusses the merits of these
competing identifications :—“ Simylla has a special
juterest,as Ptolemy states that he learned some of
his Geography of Western India from people who
traded to Simylla and had been familiar with it for
many years, and had come from there to him—
Ptolemy speaks of Simyllaasa point andemporium,
and the author of the Periplts speaks of it as
one of the Konkan local marts. Simylla till
lately was identified with Chaul. But the dis-
covery of a village Chembur on Trombay Island
in Bombay Harbour, has made it doubtful whether
the old trade centre was there or at Chaul. In
spite of the closer resemblance of the names, the
following reasons seem to favour the view that
Chaul, not Chimdla, was the Greek Simylla.
First, it is somewhat unlikely that two places so
close, and so completely on the same line of traffic
as Kalyin (the Kalliena of the Peripliés) and
Chimila should have flourished at the same time.
Second, the expression in the Periplis ‘below
(wera) Kalliena other local marts are Semulla’
pomts to some place down the coast rather than

44,

to a town in the same Harbour as Kalliena, which
according to the Author’s order north to south
should have been named before it. Third,
Ptolemy’s point (promontorium) of Simylla
has no meaning if the town was Chembur in
Trombay. But it fits well with Chaul, as the
headland would then be the south shore of Bom-
bay Harbour, one of the chief capes in this part
of the coast, the south head of the gulf or bay
whose north head is at Bassein. This explana-
tion of the Simylla point is borne out by Fryer
(1675) New Account (pp. 77-82), who talked of
Bombay ‘facing Chaul’ and notices the gulf or
hollow in the shore stretching from Bassein to
Chaul Point. The old (1540) Portuguese name
Chaul Island’ for the isle of Kennery of the south
point of Bombay, further supports this view.”
Ptolemy’s map gives great prominence to the
projection of land at Simylla, which (through a
strange misconception on his part, for which it is
impossible to account) is therein represented as
the great south-west point of India, whence the
eoast bends at once sharply to the east instead of
pursuing its course continuously to the south.
Hippokoura:—This word may be a Greek
translation (in whole or in part) of the native
name of the place. Hence Pandit Bhagvanlal
Indraji was led to identify it with Ghodabandar
(Horse-port) a town on the Thana Strait, whose
position however is not in accordance with
Ptolemy's data. Mr. Campbell again has sug-
gested an identification free from this objection.
Ghoregdion (Horse-village) in Kolaba, a place at
the head of a navigable river, which was once a

45

seat of trade. Yule takes it, though doubtingly,
as being now represented by Kuda near Rajaptr.
Hippokourios was one of the Greek epithets of
Poseidén. Ptolemy mentions another Hippo-
k o ura, which also belonged to Ariaké and was the
Capital of Baleokouros. Its situation was inland.

Baltipatua:—This place is mentioned in the
Periplis under the somewhat altered form Palai-
patmai. Yule locates it, but doubtingly, at
Daibal. Fra Paolino identified it with Balaer-
patam (the Baleopatam of Rennell) where the
king of Cananor resided, but it hes much too
far south to make the identification probable.
Mr. Campbell has suggested Pali, which he de-
scribes as “‘a very old holy town at the top of
the Nagétna river.” Its position, however, being
too far north and too far from the sea, does not
seem to suit the requirements.

7. (Ariaké) of the Pirates.

Mandagara.......... ere 113° 14°

By Zantelon s.c0.sesececucaceseevs 113° 40! 14° 40’

KHersONGsO8: ». scceecenesecscaseces 114° 20’ 14° 30/

ATMACATA “a scnoesyasmcweues Sousa 114° 20’ 14° 20’

Mouth of the River Nanagounal14° 30’ 18° 50/

Bu BE char: ne Yas 201: og Ce ee Re 115° 30’ 14° 40/
Ariaké.

Piracy, which from very early times seems to
have infested, hke a pernicious parasite, the
commerce of the Eastern Seas, flourished nowhere
so vigorously as on the Konkan Coast, along
which richly freighted merchantmen were con-
tinually plying. Here bands of pirates, formed
into regularly organized communities like those

46

of the Thags in the interior of the country, had
established themselves in strongholds contiguous
to the creeks and bays, which were numerous on
the coast, and which afforded secure harbourage
to their cruisers. The part of the coast which
was subject to their domination and which was
in consequence called the Pirate Coast, extended
from the neighbourhood of Simylla to an empo-
rium called Nitra, the Mangaruth of Kosmas and
the Mangalir of the present day. Whether the
native traders took any precautions to protect
their ships from these highwaymen of the ocean
is not known, but we learn from Pliny, that the
merchantmen which left the Egyptian ports
heading for India carried troops on board well-
armed for their defence. Mr. Campbell has
ingeniously suggested that by ’Avdpav Teiparav
Ptolemy did not mean pirates, but the powerful
dynasty of the Andhrabhritya that ruled over
the Konkan and some other parts of the Dekhan.
He says (Bombay Gazetteer, Thana, vol. II,
p. 415 n. 2nd), ‘‘ Perhaps because of Pliny’s
account of the Konkan pirates, Ptolemy’s phrase
Aridké Andron Peiratin has been taken to mean
Pirate Aridké. But Ptolemy has no mention of
pirates on the Konkan Coast, and, though this
does not carry much weight in the case of
Ptolemy, the phrase Andron Peiraton is not
correct Greek for pirates. This and the close
resemblance of the words suggest that Andron
Peiraton may originally have been Andhra-
bhrityon.” On this it may be remarked, that
though Ptolemy has no mention of pirates on
the Konkan Coast this is not in the least sur-

4?

prising, since his work is almost exclusively geo-
graphical, and whatever information on points of
history we obtain from it is more from inference
than direct statement. Further, I do not see why
the expression avépey Ileiparay if taken to mean
pirates should be called incorrect Greek, since
in later Attic it was quite a common usage to
join dynp with titles, professions and the like.

Mandagara:—This may bea transliteration,
somewhat inexact, of Madangarh (House of Love)
the name of a fort about 12 miles inland from
Bankat. More likely the place is Mindla on the
north bank of the Sautri river, opposite Bankat,
and now known as Kolmandla, and Bag and
Bagmandlé. Mangaldr, to which as far as the
name goes it might be referred, is too far south
for the identification.

Byzanteion:—tThe close correspondence of
this name with that of the famous capital on the
Bosporos has led to the surmise that a colony of
Greeks had established themselves on this coast
for commercial purposes, notwithstanding the
danger to be apprehended from attacks by the
pirates in their neighbourhood. It appears how-
ever quite unlikely that Greeks should have
formed a settlement where few, if any, of the
advantages could be enjoyed which generally de-
termined their choice of a locality in which to plant
acolony. The name may perhaps be a translitera-
tion of Vijayanta, now Vijayadurga, the south
entrance of the Vaghotan river in Ratnagiri.
The word means the Fort of Victory.

Khersonésos:—tThis seems to be the penin-
sula which is in the neighbourhood of Goa. It is

48

mentioned in the Periplis as one of the haunts
of the pirates, and as being near the island of the
Kaineitai, that is, St. George’s Island.

Armagara:—tThis is placed near the mouth
of the Nanagouna river, which may be taken
to mean here the river on which SadaSsivagarh
stands. The Nanagouna however must be identi-
fied with the Tapti, whose embouchure is about 6°
farther north. Its name is Sanskrit, meaning
‘possessed of many virtues.’ To account for this
extraordinary dislocation, Yule supposes that
Ptolemy, having got from his Indian lists a river
Nanéguna rising in the Vindhyas, assigns to it
three discharges into the sea by what he took for
so many delta branches, which he calls respec-
tively Goaris, Benda, and Nanaguna, This, he
adds, looked possible to ‘Ptolemy on his map,
with its excessive distortion of the western coast,
and his entire displacement of the Western Ghats.
Mr. Campbell suggests that Ptolemy may have
mistaken the Nand Pass for a river.

Nitra is the most southern of the pirate
ports, and is mentioned by Pliny in a passage
where he remarks that ships frequenting the great
emporium of Mouziris ran the risk of being
attacked by pirates who infested the neighbour-
hood, and possessed a place called Nitra. Yule
refers it as has been already stated to Mangalur.

8. Limyrike.

DV ACIS; GCULY pcsekscsessuesees 116° 14° 30'
Bramagara sescesseeeeeevevee ss L1G? 45" 14° 20/
Kalaikarias — ...sec0e.e<+seevesees 116° 40’ 14°

Mouziris, an emporium ...... 117° 14°

At)

Mouth of the River Pscudos:-

POMS s ciisisavseeres Seeciuwewens 117° 20’ 14°
Podoperoura ....... etaseaneaas 117° 40’ 14° 15/
Semné ....... Sh sae Rien ep canta 118° 14° 20/
TOVCOUTE: sca aa keewcraraees ... L118? 40% 14° 20°
Ba Rarer iepocnceg sees taoee see 119° 30’ 14° 80’
Mouth of the River Baris...120° 14° 20’

Limyriké:—Lassen was unable to trace this
name to any Indian source, but Caldwell has satis-
fuctorily explained itsorigin. In the introduction
to his Dravidian Grammar he states (page 14), that
in the Indian segment of the Roman maps called
the Peutinger Tables the portion of India to
which this name is applied is called Damirike,
und that we can scarcely err in identifying this
name with the Tami] country, smce Damirike
evidently means Damir-iké. In the map referred
to there is moreover a district called Scytia
Dyimirice, and it appears to have been this word
which by a mistake of A for A Ptolemy wrote
Lymirike. The D, he adds, retains its place in
the Cosmography of the Geographer of Ravenna,
who repeatedly mentions Dimirica as one of the
3 divisions of India. Ptolemy and the author of
the Periplis are at one in making Tyndis one of
the first or most northern ports in Limyriké.
The latter gives its distance from Barygaza at
7,000 stadia, or nearly 12 degrees of latitude, if we
reckon 600 stadia to the degree. Notwithstand-
ing this authoritative indication, which makes
Limyriké begin somewhere near Kalikat (11° 15’
N. lat.) its frontier has generally been placed
nearly 3 degrees further north, Tyndis having

7G

50

been located at Barcelor. This error has been
rectified by Yule, whose adherence to the data
of the Periplis has been completely justified
by the satisfactory identification of Mouziris (the
southern rival in commercial prosperity of Bary-
gaza) with Kranganur, instead of with Mangalur
as previously accepted. The capital of Limyriké
was Karar, on the Kavéri, where resided Kéro-
bothros, 7.e., Kéralaputra, the Chéra king.
Tyndis is described in the Periplis as a
place of great note pertaining to the kingdom
of Képrobotras, and situate near the sea at
a distance of 500 stadia from Mouziris. This
distance north from Kranganur with which, as
has been stated, Mouziris has been identified,
brings us to Tandr. ‘“ Tandr itself, ”’ says Yule,
“may be Tyndis; it was an ancient city, the seat
of % principality, and in the beginning of the 16th
century had stillmuch shipping and trade. Perhaps,
however, a more probable site is a few miles further
north, Kadalundi, 7. e. Kadal-tundi, ‘the raised
ground by the sea,’ standing on an inlet 3 or 4
miles south of Bépur. It is not now a port, but
persons on the spot seem to think that it must
formerly have been one, and in communication
with the Backwater.” He adds in a note supplied
by Dr. Burnell, “The composition of Kadal and
Tundi makes Kadalundi by Tamil rules.” The
pepper country called Kottonarike was imme-
diately adjacent to Tyndis, which no doubt
exported great quantities of that spice.
Bramagara is placed in the table half a
degree to the east of Tyndis, i.e, really to the
south of it, since Ptolemy makes the Malabar

51

Coast run east instead of south. The name may
be a transliteration of the Sanskrit Brahnuiqira,
which means ‘the abode of the Brahmans.’ The
Brahmans of the south of India appear m those
days to have consisted of a number of isolated
communities that were settled in separate parts
of the country, and that were independent cach of
the other. This, as Lassen remarks (Ind. Alt., vol.
III, p. 193) is in harmony with the tradition
according tu which the Arya Brihmans were
represented as having been settled by Parasurama
in 61 villages, and as having at first lived under a
republican constitution. In section 74 Ptolemy
mentions a town called Brahmé belonging to the
Brahmanoi Magoi, i.e., ‘sons of the Brahmans.’
Kalaikarias:—tThe last half of this word
(Karias) is doubtless the Tamil word for “ coast,”
karei, which appears also in another of Ptolemy’s
names, Peringkarei, mentioned as one of the
inland towns Kandionoi (sec. 89). 1 find in
Arrowsmith’s large Map of India a place called
‘Chalacoory’ to the N. E. of Kranganur, and at
about the same distance from it as our author
makes Kalaikarias distant from Mouziris.
Mouziris may unhesitatingly be taken to,
represent the Muyiri of Muyiri-Kodu, which
says Yule, appears in one of the most ancient of
Malabar inscriptions as the residence of the
King of Kodangalur or Kranganur, and is
admitted to be practically identical with that
now extinct city. It is to Kranganur he adds
that all the Malabar traditions point as their
oldest seaport of renown; to the Christians it
was the landing-place of St. Thomas the Apostle.

52

Mouth of the river Pseudostomos, or
‘false-mouth.’ According to the table the river
enters the sea at the distance of 3 of a degree
below Mouziris. It must have been one of the
streanis that discharge into the Backwater.

Podoperoura must be the Poudopatana of
Indikopleustés—a word which means ‘ new town,’
and is a more correct form than Ptolemy’s Podo-
peroura.

Semné:—The Sansknt name for Buddhist
Ascetics was 8 ramana, in Tamil Sumana, and as
we find that this is rendered as Semnoi by
Clemens Alexandrinus, we may infer that Sem-
né was a town inhabited by. Buddhists, having
perhaps a Buddhist temple of noted sanctity.
For a different explanation see Lassen’s Ind. Alt.
vol. III, p. 194.

Bakarei is mentioned by Pliny as Becare,
and as Bakaré by the Author of the Periplis,
who places it at the mouth of the river on
which, at a distance of 120 stadia from the sea
was situated the great mart called Nelkynda, or
Melkynda as Ptolemy writes it. The river is
described as difficult of navigation on account
of shallows and sunken reefs, so that ships de-
spatched from Nelkynda were obliged to sail down
empty to Bakaré and there take in their cargoes.
The distance of Nelkynda from Mouziris is given
at about 500 stadia, and this whether the Journey
was made by sea or by river or by land. Upon
this Yule thus remarks: “ At this distance south
from Kranganur we are not able to pomt to a
quite satisfactory Nelkynda. The site which has
been selected as the most probable is nearly 800

53

stadia south of Mouziris. This is Kallada, on «
river of the same name entering the Backwater,
the only navigable river on this south-west coast
except the Perri-4y near Kranganur. The Kallada
river is believed to be the Kantfi mentioned in
the Kéralotatti legendary history of Malabar,
and the town of Kallada to be the town of
Kanétti. It is now a great entrepodt of Travankor
pepper, which is sent from this to ports on the
eoast for shipment. That Nelkynda cannot have
been far from this is clear from the vicinity of the
Tlupédv dpos or Red-Hill of the Periplis (sec. 58).
There can be little doubt that this is the bar of
red laterite which, a short distance south of
Quilon, cuts short the Backwater ravigation, and
is thence called the Warkallé barrier. It forms
abrupt cliffs on the sea, without beach, and these
cliffs are still known to seamen as the Red
Cliffs. This is the only thing like a sea cliff
from Mount d’Ely to Cape Comorin.” The word
Bakarei may represent the Sanskrit dvdraka,
‘a door.’

Mouth of the river Baris:—The Baris must
be a stream that enters the Backwater in the
neighbourhood of Quilon.

¥. Country of the Aioi.

Melkynda, wecccsicccscaseseecatens 120° 20’ 14° 207
Elangkén (or Elangkér), a

PUA seh eudcenseuhauacenne ..-..120° 40% 14°
Kottiara, the metropolis ...... 121° 14°
Bammatla ...........6. serene, 121° 20%) 14° 15/

Komana, vaeape and town .,.121° 45 13° 30’

yr

54,

Limirike and country of the Avoi.

The Aioi:—This people occupied the southern
parts of Travankor. Their name is perhaps a
transliteration of the Sanskrit ahi, ‘a snake,’ and
if so, this would indicate the prevalence among
them of serpent worship. Cunningham, in his
Geography of Ancient India (p. 552), states that
in the Chino-Japanese Map of India the alter-
native name of Malyakdta is Hai-an-men, which
suggests a connection with Ptolemy’s Aioi. I note
that the entrance to the Backwater at Kalikoulan
is called the Great Ayibicca Bar, and an entrance
farther south the Little Ayibicca Bar. The first part
of this name may also be similarly connected.

Melkynda, as already stated is the Nel-
kynda of the Periplis, which places it, however,
in Limyriké. Pliny speaks of it as portus gentis
Neacyndon (v. ll. Neacrindon, Neachyndon,
Nelcyndon.) The name, according to Caldwell,
probably means West Kynda, that is Kannetri,
the south boundary of Kérala Proper. When
Mangalur was taken as the representative of
Mouziris, Nelkynda was generally identified with
Nelisuram, which besides the partial resemblance
of its name, answered closely in other respects
to the description of Nelkynda in the Periplis—
Cf. C. Miller, not. ad Peripl., Sec. 54. Lassen,
Ind. Alt., vol. ITI, p. 190. Bunbury, Hist. of Ane.
Geog. vol. I, pp. 467-8.

Elangkoén or Blangkor is now Quilon,
otherwise written Kulam.

“Kottiara,” says Caldwell, ‘‘is thename of
a place in the country of the Aioi of Ptolemy in
the Paralia of the Author of the Periplds, identical

ee
Jv

in part with South Travankor. Apparently it is
the Cottara of Pliny, and I have no doubt it is the
Cottara of the Peutinger Tables. Itis called by
Ptolemy the Metropolis, and must have been a
place of considerable importance. The town re-
ferred to is probably Kottara, or as it is ordinan-
ly written by Europeans ‘ Kotaur,’ the principal
town in South Travankor, and now as in the time
of the Greeks distinguished for its commerce.”
Dravid. Gram., Introd. p. 98. The name is deriv-
ed from kéd ‘a foot,’ and dr-% ‘a river.’

Bammala:—Mannert would identify this
with Bulita, a place a little to the north of An-
jenga, but this is too far north. It may perhaps
be the Balita of the Periplis.

Komaria, a cape and a town :—We have no
difficulty in recognizing here Cape Comorin, which
is called in the Periplts Komar and Komarci.
The name is derived from the Sanskrit kumdri, ‘a
virgin,’ one of the names of the Goddess Dirga
who presided over the place, which was one of
peculiar sanctity. The Author of the Periplis
has made the mistake of extending the Peninsula
southward beyond Comorin.

We may here compare Ptolemy’s enumeration
of places on the west coast with that of the
Periplis from Barygaza to Cape Comorin.

Ptolemy. Periplis.
Barygaza Barygaza
Nousaripa Akabarou
Poulipoula
Soupara Souppara

Dounga Kalliena

Ptolemy.

Sinylla

Island of Milizégyris
Hippokoura
Baltipatna
Mandagora

Is. of Heptanésia
Byzanteion

Khersonésos
Armagara

Is. of Peperine
Nitra

Tyndis
Trinésia Islands
Bramagara
Kalaikarias
Mouziris
Podoperoura
Semné

Is. Leuké
Koreoura
Melkynda
Bakarei
Elangkon
Kottiara
Bammola
Komaria

ab

Periplis.

Semylla
Mandavora

Palaipatmai
Melizeigara

Byzantion

Toparon

Tyrannosboas

3 separate groups of
islands

Khersonésos

Is. of Leuké

Naoura
Tyndis

Mouziris

Nelkynda
Bakaré
Mons Pyrrhos

Balita
Komar.

There is a striking agreement between the twe
lists, especially with respect to the order in

7

ce

which the places enumerated succeed each other.
There are but three exceptions to the coincidence
and these are unimportant. They are, Milize-
gyris, Mandagora and the Island Leuké, Le.
‘white island, if the name be Greek. The
Melizcigara of the Periplés, Vincent ideutifies
with Jayagadh or Sidi, perhaps the Sigerus of Pliny
(ib. VI, ¢. xxvi, 100). Ptolemy makes Milizégyris
to be an island about 20 miles south of Simylla.
There is one important place which he has
failed to notice, Kalliena now Kalydna, a well-
known town not far from Bombay.

10. Country of the Karcoi

In the Kolkhic Gulf, where there is the
Pearl Fishery :—

Sosikourai ....... Lictninieueieseelee” 14° 30°
Kolkhoi, an emporium......... 123° 15°
Mouth of the river Sélén...... 124° 14° 40’

The country of the Kareoi corresponds to
South Tinneveli. The word karei, as already
stated is Tamil, and means ‘coast.’ The Kolkhic
Gulf is now known as the Gulf of Mandar. The
pearl fishery is noticed in the Periplas,

Sésikourai:—By the change of Sinto T we
find the modern representative of this place to be
Tutikorin (Tuttukudi) a harbour in Tinneveli,
where there are pearl banks, about 10 miles south
of Kolkhoi. This mart lay on the Sdlén or
Tamraparnt river. Tutikorin in the Peutinger
Tables is called Colcis Indurum. The Tamil
name is Kolkei, almost the same as the Greek.
Yule in his work on Marco Polo (vol. II,
pp. 360-61) gives the following account of this

8 «a

58

place, based on information supplied hy Dr.
Caldwell :—

“Kolkhoi, described by Ptolemy and _ the
Author of the Periplis as an emporium of the pearl
trade, as situated on the sea-coast to the east of
Cape Comorin, and as giving its name to the
Kolkhic Gulf or Gulf of Mandar has been iden-
tified with Korkai, the mother-city of Kayal
(the Coél of Marco Polo). Korkai, properly
Kolkai (the / being changed into r by a modern
refinement, it is still called Kolka in Malayalam),
holds an important place in Tamil] traditions,
being regarded as the birth-place of the Pandya
dynasty, the place where the princes of that race
ruled previously to their removal to Madura.
One of the titles of the Pandya kings is ‘ Ruler
of Korkai.’ Korkai is situated two or three miles
inland from Kayal, higher up the river. It is
not marked in the G. Trig. Surv. map, but a
village in the immediate neighbourhood of it,
called Maramangalam ‘the good fortune of the
Pandyas’ will be found in the map. This place,
together with several others in the neighbourhood,
on both sides of the river, is proved by inscrip-
tions and relics to have been formerly included in
Korkai, and the whole intervening space between
Korkai and Kayal exhibits traces of ancient
dwellings. The people of Kayal maintain that
their city was originally so large as to include
Korkai, but there is much more probability in
the tradition of the people of Korkai, which is to
the effect that Korkai itself was originally a sca-
port; that as the sea retired it becaime less and
less suitable for trade, that Kayal rose as Korkai

59

fell, and that at length, as the sea continued tu
retire, Kayal also was abandoned. They add that
the trade for which the place was famous in
ancient times was the trade in pearls.”

Mouth of the River S61 én :—This river is iden-
tified by Lassen with the Sylaur, which he says
is the largest northern tributary of the Tamra-
parni. On this identification Yule remarks :—
“The ‘Syllar’ of the maps, which Lassen identifies
with Solén, originates, as Dr. Caldwell tells me,
in a mistake. The true name is ‘Sitt-ar,’
‘Little River,’ and it is insignificant.” The
Tamraparni is the chief river of Tinneveli. It
entered the sea south of Kolkhoi. In Tami] poetry
it is called Porunei. Its Pali form is Tambapanni.
How it came to be called the Sdlén remains as yet
unexplained. Séla is an element in several South
Indian geographical names, meaning Chdla. The
word Tamraparni itself means ‘red-leaved’ or
‘ copper-coloured sand.’ Taprobane, the classical
name for Ceylon, is this word in an altered form.

1]. Land of Pandion.

In the Orgalic Gulf, Cape

Kory, called also Kalligikon,.125° 40 12° 20'
Argeirou, & tOWD ....ec.eeee. 125° 15' 14° 30/
Salour,a mart .......ceseseeeeee 125° 20’ 15° 30°

The land of Pandion included the greater
portion of the Province of Tinneveli, and extended
as far north as to the highlands in the neighbour-
hood of the Koimbatur gap. Its western boundary
was formed by the southern range of the Ghats,
called by Ptolemy Mount Beéttigé, and it had a
gea-board on the east, which extended for some

60

distance along the Sinus Orgalicus, or what is
now called Palk’s Passage.

The Author of the Peripliés however, assigns
it wider limits, as he mentions that Nelkynda,
which lay on the Malabar Coast, as well as the
pearl-fishery at Kolkhoi, both belonged to the
Kingdom of Pandion. The kingdom was so called
from the heroic family of the Pandya, which
obtained sovereign power in many different parts
of India. The Capital, called Madura, both by
Pliny and by our author, was situated in the
interior. Madura is but the Tamil manner of
pronouncing the Sanskrit Mathurd, which also de-
signated the sacred city on the Jamna famous as
the birthplace and the scene of the exploits of
Krishna, who assisted the Pandus in their war
with the Kurus. The city to this day retains its
ancient name, and thus bears, so to speak, living
testimony to the fact that the Aryans of Northern
India had in early times under Pandya leaders
established their power in the most southern
parts of the Peninsula.

The Orgalic Gulf lay beyond the Kolkhic
Gulf, from which it was separated by the Island
of Rémésvaram and the string of shoals and small
islands which almost connect Ceylon with the
mainland. It derived its name from Argalou,
a place mentioned in the Periplts as lying inland
and celebrated for a manufacture of muslin
adorned with small pearls. The northern termi-
nation of the gulf was formed by Cape Kalimir.

Cape Kory:—Ptolemy makes Kory and Kalli-
gikon to be one and the same cape. They are

61

however distinet, Kory being the headland which
bounded the Orgalic Gulf on the south, and Kal-
hgikon being Point Kalimir, which bounded it on
the north. The curvature of this Gulf was called
by the Hindds Ramadhanuh, or ‘ Rdama’s bow,’ and
each end of the bow Dhanuh-koti or simply Koti.
The Sanskrit word 4ti (which means ‘ end, tip or
corner’) becomes in Tamil kddi, and this natu-
‘rally takes the form of Kéri or Kory. The
southern Koti, which was very famous in Indian
story, was formed by the long spit of land in
which the Island of Ramésvaram terminates. It
is remarkable, as Caldwell remarks, that the
Portuguese, without knowing anything of the Képu
of the Greeks, called the same spit of land Cape
Ramancoru. Ptolemy’s identification of Cape
Kory with Kalligikon or Point Kalimir is readily
explained by the fact just stated that cach of
these projections was called Kéti.

This word Koti takes another form in Greek
and Latin besides that of Kéry, viz., Kolis, the
name by which Pomponius Mela and Dionysios
Periégétés (v. 1148) designate Southern India.
The promontory is called Coliacum by Pliny,
who describes it as the projection of India near-
est Ceylon, from which it was separated by a
narrow coral sea. Stralo (lib. XV, c.i, 14) quoting
Onésikritos, speaks of Taprobane as distant from
the most southern parts of India, which are
opposite the Koniakoi,-7 days’ sail towards the
south. For Koniakoi the reading Koliakoi has
been with reason suggested.

Ptolemy, like the author of the Periplis and
other writers, regarded Cape Kory as the most

62

important projection of India towards the south,
and as a well-established point from which the
distances of other places might conveniently be
calculated. He placed it in 125 degrecs of E.
longitude from Ferro, and at 120 degrees east of
the mouth of the River Betis in Spain from which,
however, its distance is only 863 degrees. Its
latitude is 9° 20’ N. and that of Cape Comorin ,
8° 5’, but Ptolemy makes the difference in latitude
to be only 10’.

The identity of Kalligikon with Point Kalimtr
has already been pointed out. Calimere is a
corrupt form of the Tamil compound Kallimedu,
Euphorbia eminence, and so the first part of the
Greek name cxactly coincides with the Tamil
Kalli, which means the Euphorbia plant, or
perhaps a kind of cactus. Pliny mentions a
projection on the side of India we are now con-
sidering which he calls Calingon, and which the
similarity of name has led some to identify with
Kalligikon, and therefore with Point Kalimir.
It seems better, however, taking into account
other considerations which we need not here
specify, to identify this projection with Point
Godavari.

Before concluding this notice we may point
out how Ptolemy has represented the general
configuration of the eastern coast beyond the
Orgalic Gulf. His views here are almost as
erroneous as those he entertained concerning the
west coast, which, it will be remembered, he did
not carry southward to Cape Comorin, but made
to terminate at the point of Simylla, thus effacing
from the Map of India the whole of the Peninsula.

63

The actual direction of the east coast from point
Kalimir is first due north as far as the mouths
of the Krishna, and thereafter north-cast up to
the very head of the Bay of Bengal. Ptolemy,
however, makes this coast run first towards the
south-east, and this for a distance of upwards of
600 miles as far as Paloura, a place of which the
site has been fixed with certainty as lying near
the southern border of Katak, about 5 or 6 miles
above Ganjim. Ptolemy places it at the extrem-
ity of a vast peninsula, having for one of its sides
the long stretch of coast Just mentioned, and he
regards it also as marking the point from which
the Gangetic Gulf begins. The coast of this gulf
is made to run at first with an inclination to
westward, so that it forms at its outlet the other
side of the peninsula. Its curvature is then to
the north-east, as far as to the most eastern mouth
of the Ganges, and thence its direction is to the
south-east till it terminates at the cape near
Témala, now called Cape Negrais, the south-west
projection of Pegu.
12, Country of the Bato1.

Nikama, the Metropolis ...... 126° 16°
TReINGIE 266.8ocarinsdiwbsidndaetolk oe 16° 10’
Kouroula, a town ..............-128° 16°

13. In Paralia specially so called: the
country of the TéOringol.
Mouth of the River Khabéros 129° 15° 15’
Khabéris, an emporium ......128° 30’ 15° 40’
Sabouras, an emporium ......130° 14° 30’
The Batoi occupied the district extending
from the neighbourhood of Point Kalimir to the

64

southern mouth of the River Kavéri and corres:
ponding roughly with the Province of Tanjore.

Nikama, the capital, has been identificd with
Nagapatam (Nigapattanam) by Yule, who also
identifies (but doubtingly) Thelkyr with Nagor
and Kouroula with Karikal.

Paralia,asa Greek word, designated generally
any maritime district, but as applied in India it
designated exclusively (¢di@s) the seaboard of the
Toringoi. Our author is here at variance with
the Periplés, which has a Paralia extending from
the Red Cliffs near Quilon to the Pear!-Fishery
at the Kolkhoi, and comprising therefrom the
coast-lines of the Aioi and the Kareoi. ‘“ This
Paralia,” says Yule, “is no doubt Purali, an old
name of Travankor, from which the Raja has
a title Puraligan, ‘Lord of Purali’” But the
“instinctive striving after meaning” which so
often modifies the form of words, converted
this into the Greek WUapadia, ‘the coast.’ Dr.
Caldwell however inclines rather to think that
Puralia may possibly have corresponded to the
native word meaning coast, viz. karet.

In sec. 91, where Ptolemy gives the list of the
inland towns of the Téring ol, he calls them the
Sorétai, mentioning that their capital was Orthoura,
where the king, whose name was Sdrnagos, resid-
ed. In sec. 68 again he mentions the Sorai as a
yuce of nomads whose capital was Sora where
their king, called Arkatos, resided. Caldwell
has pointed out the identity of the different nines
uscd to designate this people. Zepu, he says,
‘which we meet alone and in various com)ina-
tions in these (Ptolemy's) notices represents the

bo

name of the northern portion of the Tamilian
nation. This name is Choéla in Sanskrit, Chéla
in Telugu, but in Tamil Sdra or Chora. The
accuracy with regard to the name of the people
is remarkable, for in Tami] they appear not only
as Soras, but also as Sdragas and Soriyas, and
even aS Soringas. Their country also is called
Soragam. The + of the Tamil word Sora is a
peculiar sound not contained in Telugu, in which
it is generally represented by ¢ orl. The trans-
literation of this letter as r seems to show that
then, as now, the use of this peculiar 7 was a
dialectic peculiarity of Tamil.”

The River Khabéros is the Kavért. Kévéra
is the Sanskrit word for saffron. Kavéri, according
to a legend in the Harivaisa, was changed by
her father’s curse from one-half of the Ganga
into the river which bears her name, and which
was therefore also called Ardha-ganga, 1.e., half-
gangd. Karoura, the residence of the Chera
king, was upon this river.

Dr. Burnell identified Khabéris with Kavé-
ripattam (Ind. Ant., vol. VII, p. 40) which
lies a little to the north of Tranquebar (Tal-
langambadi) at the mouth of the Pudu-Kaveri
(New Kavért).

Sabouras:—This mart Yule refers doubtingly
to Gudalur (Cuddalore) near the mouth of the
S. Penn-ar River.

l4. The Arouarnoi (Arvarno)).

Pddouké, an emporium ...... 130° 15’ 14° 39
Melangé, an emporium.........131° 14° 20/

Mouth of the River Tyna......181° 40% = 12° 45/

66

IS OUUS aiecsethdeustenys eeeneaphnee 132° 20’ 12° 10’
Manarpha (or Manaliarpha,
@ mart) ..... ccc. eens Secees 133° 10’ 12°

15. Maisdlia.
Mouth of the River Mais6los134° 11° 40’
Kontakossyla, a mart ...... »- 134° 80’ 11° 40°
Koddoure: 1.0; desc ohecsasasees 135° 11° 30’

Allosygneé, a mart...............185° 40’ 11° 20’
The point of departure (aphe-

térton) for ships bound for

HDTV SC" Agdcinnancvcae, Sikioees 136° 20’—11°

The territory of the Arouarnoi (Arvarnol)
was permeated by the River Tyna, and extended
northward to Maisdlia, the region watered by
the River Maisdlos in the lower parts of its course.
Opinions differ with regard to the identification
of these two rivers, and consequently also of
the places mentioned in connection with them.
Some of the older commentators, followed by
Yule, take the Tyna to be the Pinika or Penn-ar
River, and the Maisdlos the Krishné. Lassen
again, and recent writers generally, identify the
Tyna with the Krishna and the Maisdlos with the
Godavari. To the former theory there is the
objection that if the Godavari be not the Maisolos,
that most important of all the rivers on this
coast is left unnoticed, and Lassen accordingly
asks why should the small Penn-ar appear and
the great Godavari be omitted. To this Yule
rejoins, ‘“‘We cannot say why; but it is a
curious fact that in many maps of the 16th and
17th and even of the 18th century the Gédavari
continues to be omitted altogether. A beautiful

67

map in Valentijn (vol. V), shows Gddavari
only asa river of small moment, under a local
name.” He argues further that the name Tynna
if appled to the Krishna is unaccounted for. As
identified with the Penn-dr or Pinaika, TYNNA is
an easy error for TIYNNA.

Podouké:—This mart is mentioned in the
Periplis along with Kamaraand Sdpatma as ports
to which merchants from Limyriké and the north
were wont to resort. According to Bohlen, Ritter
and Benfey, it is Puduchchéri (Pondicherry).
Lassen and Yule agree, however, in placing it at
Pulikat, which is nearly two degrees further
north.

In Yule’s map Melangé is placed at
Krishnapatam, a little to the south of the North
Penn-ar River, which as we have seen, he identifies
with the Tyna. Its name closely approximates
to that of the capital Malanga, and hence Cun-
ningham, who takes the Maisdlosto be the Gddavari,
and who locates Malanga in the neighbourhood
of Elir, identifies Melangé with Bandar Malanka
(near one of the Géddavari mouths) which he
assumes, to have been so called from its being
the port (bandar) with which the capital that lay
in the interior communicated with the sea. See
Geog. of Anc. Ind., pp. 539-40.

M anar pha (or Manaliarpha) :—This mart lay
at the mouth of a river which still preserves
traces of its name, being called the Manara.
Kottis lay not very far to the north of it.

M ais 6lia isthe name of the coast between the
Krishna and the Gddivari, and onward thence to
the neighbourhood of Paloura. It is the Masalia

68

of the Periptis which describes it as the sea-board
of a country extending far inland, and noted for
the manufacture, in immense quantities, of the
finer kinds of cotton fabrics. The name is pre-
served in Masulipattam, which has been corrupted
for the sake of a meaning into Machhlipatam,
which means fish-town. The Metropolis called
Pityndra was seated in the interior.

Kontakossyla transliterates, though not
quite correctly, the Sanskrit Kantakasthala, ‘ place
of thorns.” In Yule’s map it is placed inland
near the Krishna, in the neighbourhood of Konda-
palle, in which its name seems to be partly
preserved.

Koddoura has been identified with Gidri,
a town near Masulipatam.

Allosygné may perhaps be now represented
by Koringa(Koranja)a port situated a little beyond
Point Godavari. Its distance from the point
next mentioned in the Tables may be roughly
estimated at about 230 miles, but Ptolemy makes
it to be only 2 of a degree, and thus leaves un-
described an extensive section of the coast com-
prising the greater part of the sea-board of the
Kalingai. A clue to the explanation of tins
error and omission is supplied by a passage in
the Periplis, which runs to the effect that ships
proceeding beyond Maisdlia stood out from the
shore and sailing right across a bay made a direct
passage to the ports of Désaréné, 7.e. Orissa.
It may hence be inferred that navigators who
came from a distance to trade in those seas wonld
know little or nothing of a coast which they were

69

eareful to avoid, and that Ptolemy im consequence
was not even so much as aware of its existence.

The point whence ships took their departure
for Khrysé Yule places at the mouth of a
little river called the Baroua (the Puacotta of
Lindschoten) lying under Mt. Mahendra in lat.
18° 54’ N. This aphetérion, he points out, was
not a harbour as Lassen supposed, from which
voyages to Khrys¢ were made, but the point of de-
parture from which vessels bound thither struck
off from the coast of India, while those bound
for the marts of the Ganges renewed their coast-
mg. The course of navigation here described
continued to be followed till modern times, as
Yule shows by a quotation from Valentijn’s book
on the Dutch East Indies (1727) under a notice
of Bimlipatam :—‘‘ In the beginning of February,
there used to ply .. . to Pegu, alittle ship with
such goods as were in demand, and which were
taken on board at Masulipatam. ... From that
place it used to run along the coast up to
18° N. Lat., and then crossed sea-wards, so as
to hit the land on the other side about 16°, and
then, on an offshore wind, sailed very easily to
the Peguan River of Syriang.” (Syriam below
Rangun).

16, Inthe Gangetic Gulf.
Paloura or Pakoura, a town. .136° 40’ 11° 20°

IN ANICAINGA:.. casiseinw snes veceaseasl36° 20’ 12°
Kati kard@mit.sasacciiessesdsese 136° 20’ 12° 40’
Kannagara ...... paces 136° 30’ 13° 30°

Mouth of the River Manada. .137° 14°
Kottobara cecccccecceceepeeecereeL 34° 15! 14° 40!

70

PP Pa Da: Sih codon seein sar vageatans 137° 40’ = 15° 30°
Mouth of the River Tyndis.,..138° 30’ 16°

17. Mapoura .......acceese: 139° 16° 30°
Mina Gara. sctavsedetansiw scpiar sas 140° 17° 15’
Mouth of the Dosaron......... 141° 17° 40/
WOOAIAy cnoc2cniestudaietacanenenes 142° 18°
Mouth of the Rivcé Adamas142° 40’ 18°
Koésamba or Késaba..,......... 143° 30’ 18° 15’

Paloura:—Ptolemy, as we have seen, placed
this town at the extremity of a great peninsula
projecting to the south-east, which had no
existence however, except in his own imagination.
The following passage, quoted by Yule from
Lindschoten, shows that the name of Paloura
survived till modern times, and indicates at the
same time where its site is to be looked for :—
“ From the river of Puacota to another called
Paluor or Palura, a distance of 12 leagues, you
run along the coast with a course from S. W. to E.
Above this last river is a high mountain called
Serra de Palura, the highest mountain on the
coast. This river isin 193°.” The Palura River
must be the river of Ganjdm, the latitude of
which is at its mouth 19° 23’. Ptolemy fixes at
Paloura the beginning of the Gangetic Gulf.

Nanigaina may perhaps be placed at Puri,
famous for the temple of Jagannatha Katikardama.

The first part of the name points to the identifi-
cation of this place with Katak, the capital of
Orissa.

Kannagara:—There can be little doubt that
we have here the Kanarak of modern times, called
also the Black Pagoda.

Mouth of the Manada:—Ptvulemy enumerates
four rivers which enter the Gulf between Kanna-
gara and the western mouth of the Ganges, the
Manada, the Tyndis, the Ddsardn and the
Adamas. These would seem to be identical
respectively with the four great rivers belonging
to this part of the coast which succeed each other
in the following order:—The Mahdanadi, the
Brahmani, the Vaitarani and the Suvarnarékha,
and this is the mode of identification which Lassen
has adopted. With regard to the Manada there
can be no doubt that it is the Mahanadi, the great
river of Orissa at the bifurcation of which
Katak the capital is situated. The name is a
Sanskrit compound, meaning ‘ great river.’ Yule
differs from Lassen with regard to the other
identifications, making the Tyndis one of the
branches of the Mahdanadi, the Dosardn,—the
Bréhmani, the Adamas,—the Vaitarani, and the
Kambyson (which is Ptolemy’s western mouth of
the Ganges)—the Suvarnarékha.

The Doésaron is the river of the region in-
habited by the Dasarnas, a people mentioned in the
Vishnu Purdna as belonging to the south-east of
Madhya-déSa in juxta-position to the Sabaras,
or Suars. The word is supposed to be from
dasan ‘ten,’ and rina ‘a fort,’ and so to mean
‘the ten forts.’

Adamas is a Greek word meaning diamond.
The true Adamas, Yule observes, was in all
probability the Sank branch of the Brahmani, from
which diamonds were got in the days of Mogul
splendour.

Sippara:—The name is taken by Yule as

72

representing the Sanskrit Sérpiraka. Para in
Sanskrit means ‘the further shore or oppusite
bank of a river.’

Minagara:—The same authority identifies
this with Jajhpdr. In Arrowsmith’s map I find,
however, a small place marked, having a name
almost identical with the Greek, Mungrapir,
situated at some distance from Jajhpdr and nearer
the sea.

K osamb ais placed by Yule at Balasor, but by
Lassen at the mouth of the Subanrékha which, as
we have seen, he identifies with the Aduamas.
There was a famous city of the same name,
Kausiinhi, in the north-west of India, on the River
Jamnai, which became the Pandt capital after.
Hastinapura had been swept away by the Ganges,
and which was noted as the shrine of the most
sacred of all the statues of Buddha. It is men-
tioned in the Riumidyana, the Muhdvansa, and
the Méghadita of Kalidasa. It may thus he
reasonably concluded that the Kosamba of
Ptolemy was a seat of Buddhism established by
propagandists of that faith who came from
Kausambi.

18. Mouths of the Ganges.

The Kambyson mouth, the

most Western ......cecceeeeree 44° BO" 18° 1057
Poloura, « town ..... 2.0.06... L40° 18° 30°
The second mouth, called

MeO: Secticcsa crememulitersieho” 45% 18° 30
The third called Kambén1-

KHOR sixty chtcawsieaeiccn AO? ON 184)
Tilogrammon, a town .........147° 20% 18°

=.
(J

The fourth month, Psendosto-
MOMWsaissctamvretvecmeseawemeclen 20 18° BU
The fifth mouth, Antibolé ...148° 30’ 18° 15’
Ptolemy appears to have been the first writer
who gave to the western world any definite infor-
mation concerning that part of the Bengal Coast
which receives the waters of the Ganges. His
predecessors had indeed excelled him in the ful-
ness and accuracy with which they had described
the general course of the river, but they did not
know, except in the very vaguest way, either where
or how it entered the sea. Strabo, for instance, was
not even aware that it had more than a single
mouth. Ptolemy, on the other hand, mentions by
name five of its mouths, and his estimate of the
distance between the most western and the most
eastern of these (4 degrees of latitude) is not very
wide of the mark. Some traces also of his no-
menclature are still to be found. It is difficult,
however, to identify the mouths he has named
with those now existing, as the Ganges, like the
Indus, has shifted some of its channels, and other-
wise altered the hydrography of its delta. Opi-
nions differ regarding the western mouth, called
the Kambyson. One would naturally take it
to be the Hughli river. on which Calcutta stands,
and V.de Saint-Martin accordingly adopts this
identification. It is impossible to doubt, he says,
that the Kambysum is the Hughli river, which
must have been at all times one of the principal
outlets, as is proved historically by the mention of
Tamralipta, 600 years before our era, as one of
the most frequented ports of Eastern India. It
would be possible enough, he continues, that

a4

below Diamond Point, the principal channel, in-
stead of passing as now in front of Kalpi re-
mounted to the west in front of Tamluk (the
ancient Tamralipté) by the mouth of Tingorcally,
and came thus to touch at a locality of which the
actual name Nungabusan recalls that of Kamby-
sum or Kambusum. Wilford and Yule, on the
other hand, agree in identifying the Kambyson
with the Subanrékha river, which was formerly
but erroneously supposed to be a branch of the
Ganges, and they are thus free to take the Hughli
river as representing the second mouth called
by Ptolemy the Mega, the Greek word for ‘ great.’
Saint-Martin identifies this estuary with the River
Matl& to which in recent years an attempt was
made to divert the commerce of Calcutta, in con-
sequence of the dangers attending the navigation
of the Hughli. With regard to the Kamb éri-
khon, or third mouth, there is no difference
of opinion. “It answers,” says Saint-Martin,
“to the Barabanga, a still important estuary,
which receives the river of Kobbadak (or rather
Kobbarak), which traverses the whole extent of
the delta. The Kshétra Samdsa, amodern treatise
of Sanskrit Geography, which Wilford has often
quoted in his Memoir on the Ancient Geography
of the Gangetic basin, calls this river Koumiraka.
Here the Kambérikhon of the Greek navigators
is easily recognized.” The fourth mouth was
called Pseudostomon, thatis, ‘ false mouth,’
because it lay concealed behind numerous islands,
and was often mistaken for the easternmost mouth
of the Ganges. This Ptolemy calls Antibolé,
a name which has not yet been explained. It

70

is the Dhakka or old Ganges river, and seems to
have been the limit of India and the point from
which measurements and distances relating to
countries in India were frequently made.

In connexion with the river-mouths Ptolemy
mentions two towns, Polouraand Tilogram-
mon. The former is placed in Yule’s map at
Jelasur, near the Subanrékh4, and the latter at
Jesor. Its name seems to be compounded of the
two Sanskrit words tila, ‘sesamum,’ and grdma,
‘a village or township.’

Ptolemy having thus described the whole sea-
coast of India, from the mouths of the Indus to
those of the Ganges, gives next a list of its mountain
ranges, together with figuresof Latitude and Longi-
tude, showing the limits of the length of each range
as well as the direction.

19. The mountains belonging to Intra-
gangetic India are named as follows :—

The Apokopa, called Poinat Thedn, which ex-
tend from long. 116° to 124° and from lat. 23°
at their western limit to 26° at the eastern.

20. Mount Sardonyx, in which is found the
precious stone of the same name, and whose
middle point is in long. 117° and lat. 21°.

21. Mount Ouindion (Vindion) which ex-
tends from 126° to 135°, and preserves from its
western to. its eastern limit a uniform latitude
of 27°.

Ptolemy enumerates seven of these, probably
following some native list framed in accordance
with the native idea that seven principal mountains
existed in each division of a continent. A

76

Pauranik list gives us the names of the seven which
pertained to India, Mahéndra, Malaya, Sahya,
Suktimat, Riksha, Vindhya and P4ripatra or
Pariyatra. This can hardly be the list which
Ptolemy used, as only two of his names appear in it,
Ouxenton (—) Riksha, and Ouindion (—) Vindhya.
As his views of the configuration of India were so
wide of the mark, his mountain ranges are of
course hopelessly out of position, and the latitudes
and longitudes assigned to them in the tables
afford no clue to their identification. Some help
however towards this, as Yule points out, les in
the river-sources ascribed to each, which were
almost certainly copied from native lists, in which
notices of that particular are often to be found.
The Apokopa, or ‘ punishment’ of the
“‘ gods ?:—There is a consensus of the authorities in
referring the range thus named to the Aravali
mountains. Mount Arbuda (Abu) which is by far
the most conspicuous summit, is one of the sacred
hills of India. It was mentioned by Megasthenes
im a passage which has been preserved by Pliny
(N.H. lib. VI,c. xxi) who calls it Mons Capitalia,i.e.
the ‘ Mount of Capital Punishment,’ a name which
has an obvious relation to the by-name which
Ptolemy gives it, ‘the punishment of the gods.’
The word apokopa is of Greek origin, and means
primarily ‘ what has been cut off,’ and is therefore
used to denote ‘a cleft,’ ‘a cliff,’ ‘a steep hill.’ It
occurs in the Periplis (sec. 15) where it designates
a range of precipitous hills running along the
coast of Azania, t.e. of Ajan in Africa. Its
Sanskrit equivalent may have been given as a
name to Mount Arbuda because of its having

i

been at some time rent by an earthquake. In
point of fact the Mahdbhdrata has preserved a
tradition to the effect that a cleft (chhidra) had
here been made in the earth. Such an alarming
phenomenon as the cleaving of a mountain by an
earthquake would naturally in superstitious times
be ascribed to the anger of the gods, bent on
punishing thereby some heinous crime. (See
Lassen’s Ind. Alt. vol. III, pp. 121-2).

Mount Sardonyx isashort range, a branch
of the Vindhya, now called Satpura, lying be-
tween the Narmada and the Tapti: it is mentioned
by Ktésias (frag. 8) under the name of Mount
Sardous. It has mines of the carnelian stone, of
which the sardian is a species. The Periplis
(sec. 49) notices that onyx-stones were imported
into Barygaza from the interior of the country,
and that they were also among the articles which
it exported.

Mount O uindion:—This is a correct transli-
teration of Vindhya, the native name of the exten-
sive range which connects the northern éxtremities
of the Western and Eastern Ghats, and which
separates Hindistan proper—the Madhya-désa or
middle region, regarded as the sacred land of the
Hindts—from the Dekhan. Ptolemy, as Lassen
remarks (Ind. Alt. vol. III, p. 120), is the only
geographer of classical antiquity in whose writings
the indigenous name of this far-spread range is
to be found. His Vindion however does not
embrace the whole of the Vindhya system, but
only the portion which les to the west of the
sources of the Sdn. Sanskrit writers speak of the
Vindbyas as a family of mountams. They

18

extended from Baroda to Muirzapur, and were
continued thence to Chunar.

22, Béttigd, which extends from 123° to
130°, and whose western limit is in lat. 21°
and its eastern in 20°.

23. <Adeisathron, whose middle point is in
long. 132° and in lat. 23°.

24. Ouxenton, which extends from 136° to
143°, and whose western limit is in lat. 22°
and its eastern in 24°.

25. The Oroudian Mountains, which ex-
tend from 138° to 133°, and whose eastern
limit is in 18° lat. and its western 16°.

Mount Béttig6:—As the rivers which have
their sources in this range—the Pseudostomos,
the Baris, and the Sdlén or Tamraparni, all belong
to South Malabar, there can be no doubt that
Béttigd denotes the southern portion of the
Western Ghats extending from the Koimbatur
gap to Cape Comorin—called Malaya in the
Pauranik list already quoted. One of the sum-
mits of this range, famous in Indian mythology
as the abode of the Rishi Agastya, bears the
name in Tamil of Podigei, or as it is pronounc-
ed Pothigei. It is visible from the mouth of
the Tamraparni, which has its sources in it, and
from Kolkhoi, and the Greeks who visited those
parts, and had the mountain pointed out to them
would no doubt apply the name by which they
heard it called to the whole range connected
with it. (See Caldwell’s Dravid. Gram. Introd.
p. 101.)

79

Adeisathron:—lf we take Ptolemy’s figures
as our guide here, we mustidentify this range with
the chain of hills which Lassen describes in the
following passage :—‘‘ Of the mountain system of
the Dekhan Ptolemy had formed an erroneous
conception, since he represented the chain of the
Western Ghats as protruded into the interior
of the country, instead of lymg near to the
western coast with which it runs parallel, and he
was misled thereby into shortening the courses of
the rivers which rise in the Western Ghats. The
chain which he calls Adeisathron begins in the
neighbourhood of Nagpur and stretches southward
to the east of therivers Wain + Ganga and Pranita,
separates the Gddavari from the Krishna, and
comes to an end at the sources of the Kavéri.
This view of his meaning is confirmed by the
fact that he locates the two cities Baithana or
Pratishthana which lies to the east of the West-
ern Ghats, on the Gddavari, and Tagara both to
the west of Adeisathron. He was led into this mis-
representation partly through the incompleteness
and insufficiency of the accounts which he used,
and partly through the circumstance that the
Eastern Ghat does not consist of a single chain,
but of several parallel chains, and that to the
south of the sources of the Kavéri the Hastern
Ghat is connected with the Western Ghat through
the Nilgiri Mountains. The name Adeisathron,
one sees, can only refer to the West Ghat in which
the Kavéri rises.” (Ind. Alt. vol. III, pp. 162-3).
Yule explains the source of Ptolemy’s error thus :
‘No doubt his Indian lists showed him Kavért
rising in Sahyddri (as does Wilford’s list from the

80

Brahmanda Pdrdna, As. Res. vol. VIII, p. 335f.).
He had no real clue to the locality of the Sahyadri,
but found what he took for the same name (Adi-
sathra) applied to a city in the heart of India,
and there he located the range.” Adeisathron
must therefore be taken to denote properly that
section of the Western Ghats which is imme-
diately to the north of the Koimbatur gap, as it
is there the Kavéri rises. The origin of the
name Adeisathron will be afterwards pointed out.

Ouxenton designates the Eastern continuation
of the Vindhyas. All the authorities are at one
in referrmg it to the mountaimous regions south
of the Sén, included in Chhutia Nagpdr, Ramgarh,
Sirguja, &c. Ptolemy places its western extre-
mity at the distance of one degree from the
eastern extremity of the Vindhyas. The rivers
which have their sources in the range are the
Tyndis, the Désarén, the Adamas and an un-
named tributary of the Ganges. The name
itself represents the Sanskrit Rikshavant, which
however did not designate the Eastern Vindhyas,
but a large district of the central. This differ-
ence in the application of the names need not
invalidate the supposition of their identity. The
authors whom Ptolemy consulted may have
misled him by some inaccuracy in their state-
ments, or the Hindis themselves may have
intended the name of Rikshavant to include localhi-
ties further eastward than those which it pri-
marily denoted. Riksha means ‘a bear, and
is no doubt connected with the Greek word
of the same meaning, arktos.

The Oroudian Mountains:—“ This we take,”

8]

says Yule, “to be the Vaiddrya just men-
tioned, as the northern section of the Western
Ghats, thaugh Ptolemy has entirely misconceived
its position. We conceive that he found in the
Indian lists that the great rivers of the eastern
or Maesclhan Coast rose in the Vaidarya, and
having no other clue he places the Orddia (which
seems to be a mere metathesis of Oddrya for
Vaidarya) near and parallel to that coast. Hence
Lassen and others (all, as far as is known) identify
these Groudian Mountains with those that actually
exist above Kalinga. This corresponds better, no
doubt, with the position which Ptolemy has as-
signed. But it is not our business to map Ptole-
my’s errors ; he has done that for himself; we have
to show the real meaning and application of the
names which he used, whatever false views he
may have had about them.”

26. The rivers which flow from Mount
Imaés into the Indus are arranged as follows :—

Sources of the River Kéa_ ...120° 37°
Sources of the River Souastos..122? 30° 36°
Sources of the River Indus ..125° 3°
Sources of the River Bi-

GASPOS: -vrcccuncossusenitecees 127° 30’ 36° 40°

Sources of the River Sandabal 129° 36°
Sources of the River Adris

Or HOWddISssasce.nede seen sees 130° 37°
Sources of the River Bidasis..131° 35° 30/

Regarding the origin and meaning of the name
Indus, Max Miller (India, what it can teach us) says:
“In the Védas we have a number of names of the
rivers of India as they were known to one single

ll a

82

poet, say about 1000 B.C. We then hear nothing
of India till we come to the days of Alexander,
and when we look at the names of the Indian
rivers represented by Alexander’s companions in
India, we recognize without much difficulty nearly
all of the old Vedic ngmes. In this respect the
names of rivers have a great advantage over the
names of towns in India. I do not wonder so
much at the names of the Indus and the Ganges
being the same. The Indus was known to early
traders, whether by sea or land. Skylax sailed
from the country of the Paktys, i.e. the Pushtus,
as the Afghans still call themselves, down to the
mouth of the Indus. That was under Darius Hy-
staspés (B.C. 521-486). Even before that time India
and the Indians were known by their name, which
was derived from Sindhu, the name of their
frontier river. The neighbouring tribes who
spoke Iranic languages all pronounced, like the
Persian, the s as an h (Pliny, lib. VI, ¢.xx, 7) ‘ Indus
incolis Sindus appellatus. Thus Sindhu became
Hindhu (Hidhw) and as h’s were dropped, even
at that early time, Hindhu became Indu. Thus
the river was called Indus, the people Indoi by
the Greeks, who first heard of India from the
Persians. Sindhu probably meant originally the
divider, keeper and defender, from sidh to keep
off. No more telling name could have been given
to a broad river, which guarded peaceful settlers
both against the inroads of hostile tribes and the
attacks of wild animals. ... Though Sindhu
was used as an appellative noun for river in
general, it remained throughout the whole history
of India, the name of its powerful guardian river,

83

the Indus.” Fora full discussion of the origin
of the name I may refer the reader to Benfey’s
Indien, pp. 1—2, in the Encyclopedia of Ersch
and Griber.

The Indus keing subject to periodic inundations,
more or less violent, has from time to time under-
gone considerable changes. As has been already
indicated it not unfrequently shifts the channels
by which it enters the sea, and in the upper part
of its course it would seem to be scarcely less
capricious. Thus while at the time of the Make-
donian invasion it bifurcated above Arédér, the
capital of the Sogdi, to run for about the distance
of 2 degrees in two beds which enclosed between
them the large island called by Pliny (lb. VI, c.xx,
23) Prasiaké, the Prarjuna of the inscription on the
Allahabad column, it now runs at that part in a
single stream, having forsaken the eastern bed,
and left thereby the once flourishing country
through which it flowed a complete desert.

In his description of the Indus, Ptolemy has
fallen into error on some important points. In
the first place, he represents it as rising among
the mountains of the country of the Daradrae to
the east of the Paropanisos, and as flowing from its
sources in a southward direction. Its true birth-
place is, however, in a much more southern latitude,
viz., in Tibet, near the sources of the Satlaj, on
the north side of Mount Kailasa, famous in Indian
mythology as the dwelling-place of Kuvéra and
as the paradise of Siva, and its initial direction is
towards the north-west, till it approaches the fron-
tiers of Badakshan, where it turns sharply south-
ward. Ptvlemy dves not stand alone in making

84

this mistake, for Arrian places the sources im the
lower spurs of the Paropanisos, and he is here at one
with Mela (lib. ITI, c. vii, 6), Strabo (lib. XV, c. 1i, 8),
Curtius (lib. VITI, c. ix, 3) and other ancient writers.
In fact, it was not ascertained until modern times
whence the Indus actually came. His next error
has reference to the length of the Indus valley as
measured from the mouth of the Indus to its
point of junction with the Kébul river. This he
makes to be 11 degrees, while in point of fact it 19
somewhat less than 10. This error is, however,
trivial as compared with the next by whieh the
junction of the Indus with the united stream of
the Panjab rivers is made to take place at the
distance of only one degree below its junction
with the K4&bul river, instead of at the distance
of six degrees or halfway between the upper junc-
tion and the sea. This egregious error not only
vitiates the whole of his delimeation of the river
system of the Panjab, but as it exaggerates by
more than 300 miles the distance between the
lower junction and the sea, it obseures and conr-
fuses all his geography of the Indus valley, and
so dislocates the positions named in his tables,
that they can only in a few exceptional cases be
identified.”?

22 “* Tt ishard enough,’’ says Major-General Haig, ‘‘ to
have to contend with the vagueness, inconsistencies and
eontradictions of the old writers ; but these are as nothing
compared with the obstacles which the physical charac-
teristics of the country itself oppose to the enquirer.
For ages the Indus has been pushing its bed across the
valley from east to west, generally by the gradual
process of erosion, which effectually wipes out every
trace of town and villave on its banks; but at times also
by a more or less sudden shifting of it< waters into

80

All the large tributaries of the Indus, with the
exception of the Kabul river, join it on its left or
eastern side. Their number is stated by Strabo
(lib. XV, c. 1, 33) and by Arrian (lib. V, c. vi) to
be 15, but by Pliny (lb. VI, ec. xx, 23) to be 19.
The most of them are mentioned in one of the
hymns of the tig Veda (X, 75) of which the
following passages are the most pertinent to our
subject :—

1. ‘ Each set of seven [streams] has followed
a threefold course. The Sindhu surpasses the
other rivers in impetuosity.

2. Varuna hollowed out the channels of thy
course, O Sindhu, when thou didst rush to thy
contests. Thou flowest from [the heights of | the
earth, over a downward slope, when thou leadest
the van of those streams.

4, Tothee, O Sindhu, the [other streams] rush
.. . Like a warrior king [in the centre of his
army | thou leadest the two wings of thy host when
thou strugglest forward to the van of these tor-
rents.

5. Receive favourably thismy hymn, O Ganga,
Yamuna, Sarasvati, Sutudrt, Parashni; hear, O
Marudvridha, with the Asikni, and Vitasta, and
thou Arjikiyé with the Sushoma.

entirely new channels, leaving large tracts of country
to go to waste, and forcing the inhabitants of many a
populous place to abandon their old homes, and follow
the river in search of new settlements. ... Perhaps
the retiring stream will leave behind it vast quantities
of drift-sand which is swept by the high winds over the
surrounding country . . . where the explorer may search
in vain for any record of the past. I have had, as an
enquirer, experience of the difficulties here described.”’
(J. R.A. S. N.S. vol. XVI, p. 251).

86

6. Unite first in thy course with the Trishta-
mia, the Sasarti, the Ras& and the Svétt; thou
meetest the Gomati, and the Krumu, with the
Kubha, and the Mehatnd, and with them are
borne onward as on the same car.” (See Journ.
Rk. A. S., N.S., Vol. XV, pp. 359-60).

As Ptolemy makes the Koa join the Indus,
it must be identified with the Kabul river,
the only large affluent which the Indus receives
from the west. Other classical writers call it
the Kophén or Kophés, in accordance with its
Sanskrit name the Kubha. Ptolemy’s name, it
must however be noted, is not applicable to the
Kabul river throughout its whole course, but only
after it has been joined by the River Kamah,
otherwise called the Kundr. This river, which is
inferior neither in size nor in length to the arm
which comes from Kabul, is regarded as the main
stream by the natives of the country, who call the
course of the united streams either the Kimah
‘or the Kunar indifferently, as far as the entrance
into the plain of Peshawar. The Kamah has its
sources hivh up in the north at the foot of the
plateau of Pamir, not far from the sources of the
Oxus, and this suits Ptolemy’s description of the
Koa as a river which has its sources in the
eastern extremity of Paropanisos, and which joins
the Indus after receiving the Souastos or the river
of Swat. Kéa is very probably a curtailed form of
the name. The Persians appear to have called it
the Khoaspés, that being the name of the river
on which Susa, their capital city, stood. Under
this name it is mentioned by Aristotle (Meteorolog.
lib. 1, c. xili) who lived long enough to enter in his

87

later writings some of the new knowledge which the
expedition of his illustrious pupil had opened up
regarding Eastern Countries. It is mentioned also
by Strabo (lib. XV, c. i, 26) who followed here the
authority of Aristoboulos, one of the companions
and one of the historians of the expedition of
Alexander, and by Curtius (lib. VIII, ec. x), Strabo
l.c. states that it joins the Képhés near Plemyrion,
after passing by another city, Gorys, in its course
through Bandobéné and Gandaritis. The Koa of
Ptolemy is not to be confounded with the Khoés of
Arrian (lib. IV, c. xxi, 2), which must be identified
with a river joining the Képhés higher up its
course, viz. that which is formed by the junction
of the Alishang and the Alingar. The Euaspla of
the latter writer (ib. IV, c. xxiv, 1) is probably
only an altered form of Khoaspés.

The identification of the Kophés and its nu-
merous affluents has been a subject that has
much exercised the pens of the learned. They are
now unanimous in taking the Kophés to be the
Kabul river?’ but there are still some important
points on which they differ. In the foregoing
notice I have , adopted as preferable the views of
Saint-Martin (Htude, pp. 26—34): Conf. Lassen,
Ind. Alt. vol. III, pp. 127-8; Wilson, Ariana
Antiqua, pp. 138—188. Benfey’s Indien, pp. 44—
46, Cunningham, Geog. of Anc. India, pp. 37, 38.

Souastos:—All the authorities are at one in
identifying the Souastos with the Swat river—the
principal tributary of the Landai or river of
Pafijkora (the Gauri of Sanskrit), which is the

with the Argandab.

88

last of the great affluents that the K4bul river re-
ceives from the east before it falls into the Indus.
The Souastos, though a small stream, is yet of old
renown, being the Svéti of the Vedic hymn al-
ready quoted, and the Suvastu of the Mahdbhd-
rata (VI, ix, 333), where it is mentioned in con-
junction with the Gauri. Its name figures also
in the list of Indian rivers which Arrian (Indika,
sec. 4) has preserved from the lost work of Mega-
sthenés. Here it is mentioned in conjunction with
the Malamantos and the Garoia, which latter is
of course the Gauri. Arrian thus makes the
Souastos and the Gouraios to be different rivers,
but in another passage of his works (Anab. lib. IV,
c. xxv) he seems to have fallen into the mistake
of making them identical. It is surprising, as
Lassen has remarked, that Ptolemy should notice
the Souastos, and yet say nothing about the
Garoia, especially as he mentions the district of
Goryaia, which is called after it, and as he must
have known of its existence from the historians
of Alexander. He has also, it nray be noted,
placed the sources of the Souastos too far north.
The five great rivers which watered the region of
the Panjab bear the following names in Ptolemy :
Bidaspés, Sandabal, Adris or Rhonadis, Bibasis and
Zaradros. This region in early times was called
the country of the seven rivers—Sapta Sindhu,
a name which, as Sir H. Rawlinson has pointed
out, belonged primarily to the seven head streams
of the Oxus. As there were only five large streams
in the locality in India to which the name was
applied, the number was made up to seven by add-
ing sinaller affluents or lower branches of combined

89

streams, to which new names were given. The
Vedic Aryans, however, as Mr. Thomas remarks,
could never satisfactorily make up the sacred seven
without the aid of the comparatively insignificant
Sarasvati, a river which no longer exists. These
rivers are notably erratic, having more than once
changed their bed since Vedic times.

Bidasp és :—tThisis now the Jhelam or river of
Behat,the most western of the five rivers. Itdrains
the whole of the valley of KaSmir, and empties
into the Akesinés or Chenab. Ptolemy, however,
calls their united stream the Bidaspés. By the
natives of Kasmir it is called the Bedasta, which
is but a slightly altered form of its Sanskrit name
the Vitast&, meaning ‘ wide-spread.’ The classical
writers, with the sole exception of our author,
call it the Hydaspés, which is not so close to the
original as his Bidaspés. It was on the left bank
of this river that Alexander defeated Poros and
built (on the battle-field) the city of Nikaia in
commemoration of his victory.

Sandabal is an evident mistake of the
copyist for Sandabaga. The word in this
corrected form is a close transliteration of
Chandrabhaga (lunae portio), one of the Sanskrit
names of the River Chenab. In the Vedic hymn
which has been quoted it is called the Asikni,
‘dark-coloured,’ whence the name given to it
by the Greeks in Alexander’s time, the Akesinés.
It is said that the followers of the great con-
queror discerned an evil omen in the name of
Chandrabhaga on account of its near similarity
to their own word Androphagos or Alexan-
drophagos, ‘devourer of Alexander’ and hence

12 G

90

preferred calling it by the more ancient of its
two names. It is the largest of all the streams
of the Pafichanada. Vigne says that Chandra-
bhagé is the name of a small lake from which the
river issues. Pliny has distorted the form Chan-
dabaga into Cantabra or Cantaba (lib. VI, c. xx).
According to the historians of Alexander the
confluence of this river with the Hydaspés produc-
ed dangerous rapids, with prodigious eddies and
loud roaring waves, but according to Burnes
their accounts are greatly exaggerated. In
Alexander’s time the Akesinés joined the Indus
near Uchh, but the point of junction is now much
lower down.

The Adris or Rhouadis is the Ravi, a
confluent of the Akesinés, but according to Ptolemy
of the Bidaspés. The name Ravi is an abridged
form of the Sanskrit Airadvati. It is called by
Arrian (Anab. lib. VI, c. viii), the Hydradtés, and
by Strabo (lib. XV, ¢. i, 21) the Hyarotis. Arrian
(Indik. sec. 4) assigns to it three tributaries—the
Hyphasis, the Saranges and Neudros. This is
not quite correct, as the Hyphasis jois the
Akesinés below the junction of the Hydraotés.

The Bibasis is the river now called the Beias,
the Vipési of Sanskrit. This word “ Vipasa”
means ‘ uncorded,’ and the river is said to have
been so called because it destroyed the cord with
which the sage Vasishtha had intended to hang
himself. It is called the Hyphasis by Arrian
(Anab. lib. VI, c. viii), and Diodoros (lib. XVII,
ce. xcui), the Hypasis by Pliny (lib. VII, c. xvii,
20) and Curtius (lib. 1X, c. i), and the Hypanis by
Strabo (ib. XV, c. i, 17) and some other writers.

9]

It falls into the Satadru. It was the river which
marked the limit of Alexander’s advance into India.
27. Sources of the River
Zaradros ...ceccesese 132° 36°
Confluence of the Kéa and
IMAUS, scnrecatsnicasecsstateoee led 31°
Confluence of the Kéa and
Souast0S .escesseceecceeseeeeed 22” 30’ 31° 40’
Confluence of the Zaradros

ti: LU GUS casuet aul wemune ven’ 124° 30°
Confluence of the Zaradros

and Bidaspés.......... ateacelin 125° 30°
Confluence of the Zaradros

and Bibasis .........cceceseee 131° 34°
Confluence of the Bidaspés

and Adis .............00 .o.0- 126° 30’ 31° 30’
Confluence of the Bidaspés

and Sandabal_ ............... 126° 40’ 32° 40’

The Zaradros is the Satlaj, the most
easterly of the five rivers. It is called in Sanskrit
the Satadru, i.e., flowing in a hundred (branches).
Pliny (lib. VI, c. xvii) calls it the Hesydrus, Zadrades
is another reading of the name in Ptolemy. The
Satlaj, before joining the Indus, receives the Che-
naib, and so all the waters of the Paiichanada.

With regard to the nomenclature and relative
importance of the rivers of the Panjab the
following remarks of V. de Saint-Martin may be
cited :—

“As regards the Hyphasis, or more correctly
the Hypasis, the extended application of tuis
name till the stream approaches the Indus, is

94

Junction of the Zaradros and Indus:—
Ptolemy fixes this great junction in latitude 30°,
the real latitude being however 28° 55’. It takes
place about 3 miles below Mitankot, at a distance
of about 490 miles below the junction with the
Kabul River.

Divarication of the Indus towards Mt.
Vindion:—The Indus below its junction with
the Kabul river frequently throws out branches
(e.g. the Nara) which join it again before reaching
thesea, and tosuch branchesPtolemy gives the name
of exrporai. “Itisdoubtful,”’ Saint-Martin observes,
‘“‘ whether Ptolemy had formed quite a clear idea
of this configuration of the valley, and had always
distinguished properly the affluents from the
branches. Thus one does not quite precisely see
what he means by the expression which he
frequently employs 7 mnyy ths éxrpomns. What
hedesignates thereby must be undoubtedly
the streams or currents which descend from the
lateral region, and which come to lose themselves
in the branches of the river. But the expression,
which is familiar to him, is not the less ambiguous
and altogether improper ”—(p. 235n.) The branch
here mentioned, Lassen (Ind. Alt. vol. III, pp. 121,
129) takes to be the Lavani river. ‘“ Ptolemy,”
he says, “in contradiction to fact makes a tribu-
tary flow to it from the Vindhya Mountains.
His error is without doubt occasioned by this,
that the Lavani river, which has its source in
the Aravali chain falls into the salt lake, the
Rin or Irina, into which also the eastern arm of
the Indus discharges.”

Divaricationofthe Indus into Arakhdésia:—

95

Lassen (vol. III, p. 128), takes this to be the
Gomal rather than the Korum river. These
rivers are both mentioned in the Vedic hymn,
where the former appears as the Gomati and the
latter as the Krumu.

Branch of the K 6a towards the Paro pani-
sadai:—This is probably the upper Koéphén,
which joins the Koa (Kunar river) from Kabul.

Divarication of the Ind ustowardsthe Arbita
mountains :—Between the Lower Indus and the
river called anciently the Arabis or Arbis, was
located a tribe of Indian origin called variously
the Arabii, the Arbies, the Arabitae, the Ambritae
and the Arbiti. There can be no doubt therefore
that by the Arbita Mountains Ptolemy designates
the range of hills in the territory of that tribe,
now called the Hala Mountains. Towards the
northern extremity of this range the Indus
receives a tributary called the Gandava, and this
we may take to be what Ptolemy calls the di-
varication of the Indus towards the range. It
may perhaps, however, be the Western Nara that
is indicated.

Divarication of the Indus into the Paro-
panisadai:—To judge from the figures in the
table this would appear to be a tributary of the
Indus joining it from the west a little above its
junction with the Koa or Kabul river. There is,
however, no stream, even of the least note, answer-
ing to the description.

28. Divarication (éxrpom7) from the Indus
running towards Mt. Ouindion123° 29° 30’
The source of (tributary join-

ing) the Divarication ...... 127° 27°

92

contrary to the notions which we draw from
Sanskrit sources, according to which the Vipasa
loses its name in the Satadru (Satlaj), a river
which is otherwise of greater importance than the
Vipasd. Nevertheless the assertion of our author
by itself points to a local notion which is confirm-
ed by a passage in the chronicles of Smdh, where
the name of the Beiah which is the form of the
Sanskrit Vipié4 in Musalman authors and in
actual use, is equally applied to the lower course
of the Satlaj till it unites with the Chendb not
far from the Indus. Arrian, more exact here, or
at least more circumstantial than Strabo and the
other geographers, informs us that of all the group
of the Indus affluents the Akesinés was the most
considerable. It was the Akesinés which carried
to the Indus the combined waters of the Hydas-
pés of the Hydradtés and of the Hyphasis, and
each of these streams lost its name in uniting
with the Akesinés (Arr. Anab. lib. VI, c.v). This
view of the general hydrography of the Panjab
is in entire agreement with facts, and with the
actual nomenclature. It is correctly recognized
that the Chendb is in effect the most considerable
stream of the Panjib, and its name successively
absorbs the names of the Jhelam, the Ravi, and
the Gharra or lower Satlaj, before its junction
with the Indus opposite Mittankdét. Ptolemy
here differs from Avrian and the current ideas on
the subject. With him itis not the Akesinés
(or, as he calls it, the Sandabala for Sandabaga)
which carries to the Indus the waters of the
Panjib. It is the Bidaspés (Vitasta). Ptolemy
departs again in another pomt from the nomen-

93

clature of the historians who preceded him in
applying to the Gharra or lower Satlaj the name
of Zaradros, and not, as did Arrian that of Hy-
pasis. Zadadros is the Sutudri or Satadru of
the Sanskrit nomenclature, a name which com-
mon usage since the Musalman ascendancy has
strangely disfigured into Satlaj. No mention is
made of this river in the memoirs relating to the
expedition of Alexander, and Megasthenés, it
would appear, was the first who made its existence
known. The application moreover of the two
names of Zadadros and Bibasis to the united
current of the Satadru and the Vip4sa is justified
by the usage equally variable of the natives along
the banks, while in the ancient Sanskrit writings
the Satadru goes, as in Ptolemy, to join the Indus.
It may be added that certain particularities in the
texts of Arrian and Ptolemy suggest the idea that
formerly several arms of the Hyphasis existed
which went to join, it may be, the Hydradtés, or,
it may be, the lower Akesinés above the principal
confluent of the Hyphasis, an idea which the
actual examination of the locality appears to con-
firm. This point merits attention because the
obscurities or apparent contradictions in the text
of the two authors would here find an easy ex-
planation” (pp. 129-131, also pp. 396-402).

Junction of the Koa and Indus -—Ptolemy
fixes the point of junction in latitude 31°, but
the real latitude is 33° 54’. Here the Indus is
872 miles distant from its source, and 942 miles
from the sea. The confluence takes place amidst
numerous rocks and is therefore turbulent and
attended with great noise.

94

Junction of the Zaradros and Indus:—
Ptolemy fixes this great junction in latitude 30°,
the real latitude being however 28° 55’. It takes
place about 3 miles below Mitankdt, at a distance
of about 490 miles below the junction with the
Kabul River.

Divarication of the Indus towards Mt.
Vindion:—The Indus below its junction with
the Kabul river frequently throws out branches
(e.g. the Nara) which join it again before reaching
thesea, and tosuch branchesPtolemy gives thename
of éxrporai. “Itisdoubtful,”’ Saint-Martin observes,
“whether Ptolemy had formed quite a clear idea
of this configuration of the valley, and had always
distinguished properly the affluents from the
branches. Thus one does not quite precisely see
what he means by the expression which he
frequently employs 7 any ths éxrpomjs. What
hedesignates thereby must be undoubtedly
the streams or currents which descend from the
lateral region, and which come to lose themselves
in the branches of the river. But the expression,
which is familiar to him, is not the less ambiguous
and altogether improper ”—(p. 235n.) The branch
here mentioned, Lassen (Ind. Alé. vol. III, pp. 121,
129) takes to be the Lavani river. “ Ptolemy,”
he says, “in contradiction to fact makes a tribu-
tary flow to it from the Vindhya Mountains.
His error is without doubt occasioned by this,
that the Lavani river, which has its source in
the Aravali chain falls into the salt lake, the
Rin or Irina, into which also the eastern arm of
the Indus discharges.”

Divaricationof the IndusintoArakhdésia:—

95

Lassen (vol. III, p. 128), takes this to be the
Gomal rather than the Korum river. These
rivers are both mentioned in the Vedic hymn,
where the former appears as the Gémati and the
latter as the Krumu.

Branch of the K 6a towards the Paropani-
sadai:—This is probably the upper Képhén,
which joins the Kéa (Kunar river) from Kabul.

Divarication of the Ind ustowardsthe Arbita
mountains :—Between the Lower Indus and the
river called anciently the Arabis or Arbis, was
located a tribe of Indian origin called variously
the Arabii, the Arbies, the Arabitae, the Ambritae
and the Arbiti. There can be no doubt therefore
that by the Arbita Mountains Ptolemy designates
the range of hills in the territory of that tribe,
now called the Hala Mountains. Towards the
northern extremity of this range the Indus
receives a tributary called the Gandava, and this
we may take to be what Ptolemy calls the di-
varication of the Indus towards the range. It
may perhaps, however, be the Western Nara that
is indicated.

Divarication of the Indus into the Paro-
panisadai:—To judge from the figures in the
table this would appear to be a tributary of the
Indus joining it from the west a little above its
junction with the Kéa or Kabul river. There is,
however, no stream, even of the least note, answer-
ing to the description.

28, Divarication (exrpomm) from the Indus
running towards Mt. Ouindion123° 29° 30’
The source of (tributary join-

ing) the Divarication ...... 127° 27°

96

Divarication of the Indus

towards Arakhésia ......... 121° 30’ 27° 307
Divarication of the Koa to-

wards the Paropanisadai ...121° 30’ 33°
The source of (tributary join-

ing) the Divarication ...... 115° 24° 30’
Divarication of the Indus to-

wards the Arbita Mountains117° 25° 10’
Divarication of the Indus

towards the Paropanisadai.124° 30’ 31° 20’
Divarication of the Indus into

the Sagapa mouth ......... 113° 40’ 23° 15’
From the Sagapa into the

ICIS anctabauCadeaeseeenaeeenis 111° 21° 30’
Divarication of the Indus into

the Khrysoun (or Golden)

MOU: Uccresceadatseetteaaaues 112° 30’ = 22°
Divarication of the Indus into

the Khariphon mouth ...... 113° 30’ 22° 20’
From the Khariphon to the

Daa tany vis coal aereucracevaemeds 112° 30’ 21° 457
Divarication of the same

River Khariphon into the

Sabalaessa mouth............ 118° 21° 20'
Divarication from the River

Khariphon into the Loni-

bare mouth ..,.......eeseeees 113° 20’ 21° 40’

29. Of the streams which join the Ganges

the order is this :—
Sources of the River Dia-
WMO UNA. evidence excess 134° 30/

36°

97

Sources of the Ganges itself...136° 37°

Sources of the River Sarabos140° 36°
Junction of the Diamouna

and: Ganges: scccpsctesedietens 136° 34°
Junction of the Sarabos and

Galiees 5 sveptadeedetaurecteawed 136° 30’ 32°30’

Ptolemy’s description of the Ganges is very
meagre as compared with his description of the
Indus. He mentions by name only 3 of its
affluents, although Arrian (quoting from Megas-
thenés) enumerates no fewer than 17, and Pliny
19. The latitude of its source, Gan gotri, which
is in the territory of Garhwal, is 30° 54’, or more
than 6 degrees further south than its position as
given in the table. The name of the river, the
Gang 4, is supposed to be from a root gam, ‘to
go,’ reduplicated, and therefore to mean the
‘Go—go.’ The tributaries mentioned by Arrian
are these: the Kainas, Erannoboas, Kossvanos,
Sonos, Sittokatis, Solomatis, Kondokhates Sambos,
Magon, Agoranis, Omalis, Kommenases, Ka-
kouthis, Andomatis, Amystis, Oxymagis and the
Errhenysis. The two added by Pliny are the Pri-
nas and Jomanes. Regarding these names the
following remarks may be quoted from Yule :—
“ Among rivers, some of the most difficult names
are in the list which Pliny and Arrian have taken
from Megasthenés, of affluents of the Gangés.
This list was got apparently at Palibothra (Patna),
and if streams in the vicinity of that city occupy an
undue space in the list, this is natural. Thus
Magona and Errhenysis,—Mohana and Niraiijana,
join to form the river flowing past Gaya, famous

13 G

98

in Buddhist legend under the second name. The
navigable Prinas or Pinnas is perhaps Punya,
now Pimpin, one of the same cluster. Sonus
instead of being a duplicate of Erannoboas, may
be a branch of the Gaya river, still called Sona.
Andomatis flowing from the Madiandini, i.e.,
‘*Meridionales” is perhaps the Andhela, one of
the names of the Chandan river of Bhagalpdr.
Kainas, navigable, is not likely to be the Ken of
Bundélkhand, the old form of which is Karnavati,
but more probably the Kayana or Kohdana of
Gorakhpir. It is now a tributary of the lower
Ghigra, but the lower course of that river has
shifted much, and the map suggests that both the
Rapti (Solomatis of Lassen) and Kayaéna may have
entered the Ganges directly.” For the identifica-
tion of the other rivers in the list sce my article
in the Indian Antiquary, vol. V, p. 331.
Diamouna:—In this it is easy to recognize
the Yamuné, the river which after passing
Dehli, Mathura, Agr’, and other places, joins the
Ganges, of which it is the largest affluent at
Allahabad. It rises from hot springs amid
Himalayan snows, not far westward from the
sources of the Ganges. Arrian singularly enough
has omitted it from his list of the Ganges affluents,
but it is no doubt the river which he subsequently
mentionsastheJ o bares and which flows, he says,
through the country of the Sourasenoi, an Indian
tribe possessing two large cities, Methora and
Kleisobara (Krishnapura ?) Pliny (lib. VI, c. xix)
calls it the Jomanes, and states that it flowsinto the
Ganges through the Palibothri, between the towns
of Mcthora and Chrysobara (Krishnapura ?) The

99

Ganges at its junction with the Jamnf and a
third but imaginary river called the Sarasvatt,
which is supposed to jom it underground is called
the Trivént, @.e., ‘triple plait’ from the inter-
mingling of the three streams.

Sarabos:—This is the great river of Koéala,
that is now called the Sarayu or Sarju, and also the
Gharghara or Ghogra. It rises in the Himalayas,
a little to the north-east of the sources of the
Ganges, and joins that river on its left side in
latitude 25° 46’, a little above the junction of
the Sén with their united stream. Cunningham
regards the Sclomatis mentioned in Arrian’s list
of the tributaries of the Ganges as being the Sarayu
under a different name, but Lassen takes it to be
the Rapti, a large afflucnt of the same river from
Gorakhpur. The name, he thinks, is a translitera-
tion or rather abbreviation of Saravatt, the name
of a city of Késala mentioned by Kalidasa. The
river on which the city stuod is nowhere mention-
ed, but its name was in all probability the same as
that of the city (Ind. Alt., vol. II, p. 671).

Mouth of the River § 6a :—This river can be no
other than the Sdn (the Sonos of Arrian’s list)
which falls into the Ganges about 16 miles above
Patna in lat. 25° 37’. It rises in Gondwana in
the territory of Nagpur, on the elevated table-
land of Amarakantaka, about 4 or 5 miles east of
the source of the Narmadi. It would appear that
in former times it jomed the Ganges in the
immediate neighbourhood of Patna, the modern
representative of the Palibothra or Palimbothra
of the classical writers. The lat. of the souree is
22° 41; in Ptolemy 23°.

100

30. Divarication from the Ganges towards
the Ouindion range to the mouth of the River

DOa: steeslhonn seestiebs uawscetiction 136° 10’ 31° 30’
The sources of the river ...131° 28°
Divarication of the Ganges

towards the Ouxenton rangel42° 28°
The sources of the divarication137° ae

Divarication from the Ganges

into the Kambyson Mouth146° 22°
Divarication from the Ganges

mto the Pseudostomos ...... 146° 30’ 20°
Divarication from the Gan-

ges into the Antibolé Mouth146° 30’ 21°
Divarication from the Kamby-

son River into the Mega

Mouth ....... er re 145° 20°
Divarication from the Mega

Mouth into the Kambéri-

khon Mouth scces<esccassces 145° 30’ 19° 30’

The divarication towards the Ouxenton
range :—By this unnamed river, as Lassen has
pointed out (Ind, Alét., vol. III, pp. 180, 131)
Ptolemy must have meant the Dharmédaya of the
Hindus, although he has assigned far too high a
latitude for its junction with the Ganges, 28°
instead of only 22° 13’. It is, however, the only
considerable stream which flows to the Ganges
from the Bear Mountains. It passes Ramgarh
and Bardhwin, and joins the Hughli not far from
the sea, a little to the east of Tamluk. It is
commonly called the Damuda River.

The mouths of the Ganges :—In addition to

10]

the remarks already made regarding these mouths
IT may here quote a passage from Wilford on this
topic: ‘‘ Ptolemy’s description,” he says (Aszat.
Researches, vol. XIV, pp. 464-6) ‘ of the Delta of
the Ganges is by no means a bad one, if we reject
the latitudes and longitudes, which I always do,
and adhere solely to his narrative, which is plain
enough. He begins with the western branch of
the Ganges or Bhagirathi, and says that it sends
one branch to the right or towards the west,
and another towards the east, or to the left.
This takes place at Trivéni, so called from three
rivers parting, in three different directions, and it
is a most sacred place. The branch which goes
towards the right is the famous Sarasvati; and
Ptolemy says that it flows into the Kambyson
mouth, or the mouth of the Jelasor river, called
in Sanskrit Saktimati, synonymous with Kambu
or Kambuj, or the river of shells. This commu-
nication does not exist, but it was believed to
exist, till the country was surveyed. This branch
sends another arm, says our author, which affords
a& passage into the great mouth, or that of the
Bhagirathi or Ganges. This supposed branch is
the Rapanarayana, which, if the Sarasvati ever
flowed into the Kambyson mouth, must of course
have sprung from it, and it was then natural
to suppose that it did so. M. D’Anville has
brought the Sarasvati into the Jelasor river in
his maps, and supposed that the communication
took place a little above a village called Danton,
and if we look into the Bengal Atlas, we shall
perceive that during the rains, at least, it is
possible to go by water, from Hughli, through

102

the Sarasvatt, and many other rivers, to within
a few miles of Danton, and the Jeclasor river.
The river, which according to Ptolemy branches
out towards the east, or to the left, and goes
into the Kambarikan mouth is the Jumni, called
in Bengal Jubuna. For the Ganges, the Jumna
and the Sarasvati unite at the Northern Trivént
or Allahabad, and part afterwards at this Trivént
near Hughli... called in the spoken dialects
Terboni. Though the Jumna falls into the Kam-
barikan mouth, it does by no means form it; for
it obviously derives its name from the Kambadara
or Kambaraka river, as I observed before.
Ptolemy says that the Ganges sends an arm
towards the east or to the left, directly to the
false mouth or Harinaghatt’. From this springs
another branch to Antibol6, which of course
is the Dhakka branch called the Padma or
Puddigangé. This is a mistake, but of no great
consequence, as the outlines remain the same.
It is the Paddé or Dhakka& branch, which sends an
arm into the Harinaghatta. The branching out is
near Kasti and Komarkalli, and under various
appellations it goes into the MHarinaghatta
mouth.”

Besides the tributaries of the Ganges already
mentioned, Ptolemy refers to two others which it
reccives from the range of Bépyrrhos. These are
not named, but one is certainly the Kausiki and the
other ought to be either the Gandaki or the Tista.

31. And of the other rivers the positions
are thus:

The sources of the River Na-
miulos in the Ouindion rangel 27° 26° 30!

103

The bend of the river at

CTU AIM guia itive eaasaecenes 116° 30’
Its confluence with the River
NOUS. career tierce 115°

32. Sources of the River
‘Nanagouna from the Ouindion

PANOC Goi ncauru ucla wareatieues 132°
Where it eeancaten into the
Goaris and Binda ............ 114°

33. Sources of the Pseudos-
tomos from the Béttigé range. 123°
The point where it turns...... 113° 30!

34. Sources of the River
Baris in the Béttigé range ...127°
Sources of the River Sdlén

in the Béttigd range......... 127°
The point where it turns.,....124°

35. Sources of the River
Khabéros in the Adeisathros

36. Sources of the River

Tyna in the Orondian (or

Arouédan) Mountains ......... 133°
37. Sources of the River

Maisélos in the same moun-

TAINS. -ovaitesewetainacaveneeskeax auton 134° 30/
38. Sources of the River

Manda in the same moun-

DAVIS, ice diaientereacdcauasatans 136° 30’
39. Sourees of the River

Toundis in the Ouxenton range.137°

22°

18° 30/

26° 30!
16°

21°
17° 15’

26° 30’

20° 30’

18°

22°

17°

17° 30/

16° 30°

22° 30’

104

40. Sources of the River
Dosarén in the same range ...140° 24°
41. Sources of the River

Adamas in the same range ...142° 24°

These rivers have been all already noticed,
with the exception of the Mdphis. This is
now the Mahi, a considerable river which flows
into the Gulf of Khambat at its northern extre-
mity at a distance of about 35 miles north from
the estuary of the Narmida. Ptolemy is in error
in making the two rivers join each other. The
Mophis is mentioned in the Periplis as the Mais.
In this list the spelling of the names of two of
the rivers of Orissa has been slightly changed, the
Manada into Manda and Tyndis into Toundis.

Ptolemy proceeds now (following as much as
possible the order already observed) to give a list
of the different territorves anit peoples of India
elassified according to the river-basins, together
with the towns belonging to each territory and
each people (§§42—93), and closes the chapter
by mentioning the small rslands that lay adjacent
to the coast. He begins with the basin of the
Képhés, part of which he had already described
in the 6th Book.

42. The ordcr of the territories in this divi-
sion (India intra Gangem) and of their cities
or villages is as follows :—

Below the sources of the Kéa are located the
Lambatai, and their mountain region extends
upwards to that of the Komedai,

105

Below the sources of the Souastos is Souasténé.

Below those of the Indus are the Daradrai,
in whose country the mountains are of surpass-
ang height.

Below the sources of the Bidaspés and of the
Sandabal and of the Adris is Kaspeiria.

Below the sources of the Bibasis and of the
Yaradros and of the: Diamouna and of the
Ganges is Kylindriné, and below the Lambatai
and Souasténé is Goryaia.

Ptolemy’s description of the regions watered
by the K 6p h énand its tributaries given here and
in the preceding book may well strike us with
surprise, whether we consider the great copious-
ness of its details, or the way in which its parts
have been connected and arranged. It is evident,
that he was indebted for his materials here chiefly
to native sources of information and itineraries of
merchants or caravans, and that he did not much
consult the records, whether historical or geogra-
phical, of Alexander’s expedition, else he would not
have failed to mention such places as Alexandria,
under Kaukasos, Massaga, Nysa, Bazira, the rock
Adornos, and other localities made memorable by
that expedition.

In describing the basin of the K6éphén he
divides it into two distinct regions—the high region
and the lower, a distinction which had been made
by the contemporaries of Alexander. The high
region formed the country of the Paropani-
sadai, and this Ptolemy has described in the 18th
chapter of the 6th Book. He now describes the

14 c¢

106

lower region which , he regards as a part of India.
(V. Saint-Martin, Etude, pp. 62-3).

The Lambatai were the inhabitants of the
district now called Lamghan, a small territory
lying along the northern bank of the Kabul river
bounded on the west by the Alingér and Kunar
rivers, and on the north by the snowy mountains.
Lamghan was visited in the middle of the 7th
century by Hiuen Tsiang, who calls it Lan-po,
and notes that its distance eastward from Kapi-
séné, to which before his time it had become
subject, was 600 lc (equal to 100 miles). The
name of the people is met with in the Mahd-
bhdrata and in the Paurdnik lists under the form
Lampéka. Cunningham would therefore correct
Ptolemy’s Lambatai to Lambagai by the slight
change of I for T. A minute account of this
little district is given in the Memoirs of the Em-
peror Baber, who states that it was called after
Lamech, the father of Noah. The Dictionary of
Hémachandra, which mentions the Lampaka,
gives as another name of the people that of the
Muranda. Their language is Pushtu in its basis.
(See Cunningham’s Geog. of Anc. India, pp. 42-3;
Saint-Martin, Etude, pp. 74-5; also his L’ Asie
Central, p. 48; Lassen, Ind. Alt., vol. I, p. 422.

Souasténé designates the basin of the
Souastos, which, as has already been noticed, is
the river now called the river of Swat. The full
form of the name is Subhavastu, which by the
usual mode of contraction becomes Subhastu
or Suvistu. Souasténé is not the indigenous
name of the district, but one evidently formed for
it by the-Greeks. It is the country now inhabited

107

by the warlike tribes of the Yuzofzais which
appears to have been called in ancient times with
reference to the rich verdure and fertility of its
valleys Udyana, that is, ‘a garden’ or‘ park.’ It
was visited by Hiuen Tsiang, who calls it the
kingdom of U-chang-na.

The Daradrai:—Ptolemy has somewhat dis-
figured the name of these mountaineers, who are
mentioned in the Mahdbhdérata and in the Chro-
nicle of Kagmir as the Darada. They inhabited
the mountain-region which lay to the east of the
Lambatai and of Souasténé, and to the north
of the uppermost part of the course of the Indus
along the north-west frontier of Kasmir. This
was the region made so famous by the story of
the gold-digging ants first published to the west
by Heérodotos (ib. III, ¢. cii), and afterwards
repeated by Megasthenés, whose version of it is
to be found in Strabo (lib. XV, c. i, 44) and
in Arrian’s Indika (sec. 15) and also in Pliny
(ib. VI, ¢. xxi and lib. XI, c. xxxvi). The name
of the people in Strabo is Derdai, in Pliny
Dardae, and in Dionys. Periég. (v. 1138) Dardanoi.
Their country still bears their name, being called
Dardistan. The Sanskrit word darad among other
meanings has that of ‘mountain.’ As the regions
along the banks of the Upper Indus produced gold
of a good quality, which found its way to India
and Persia, and other countries farther west, it has
been supposed that the Indus was one of the four
rivers of Paradise mentioned in the book of Genesis,
viz., the Pishon, ‘‘ which compasseth the whole land
of Havilah, where there is gold; and the gold of that
land is good.” This opinion has been advocated by

108

scholars of high name and authority. Havilab:
they take to be in a much altered form, the Sans-
krit sardvara, ‘a lake, with reference perhaps
to the lake in Tibet called Manasaroévara.
Boscawen, however, has pointed out that there
was a river called the Pisanu, belonging to the
region between Nineveh and Babylon, where he
locates paradise.

Kaspeiria:—The name and the position
concur in indicating this to be the valley of
Kaésmir, a name which, according to Burnouf,
is a contraction of Kaésyapamira, which is
thought with good reason to be the original
whence came the Kaspapyros of the old Geographer
Hekataios and the Kaspatyros of Hérodotos (lib.
III, c. cii), who tells us (lib. IV, c. xliv) that it was
from the city of that name and from the Paktyikan
land that Skylax the Karyandian started on his
voyage of discovery down the Indus in order to
ascertain for Darius where that river entered the
sea. It cannot be determined with certainty
where that city should be located, but there can
be no good reason, as Wilson has shown (in opposi-
tion to the views of Wilford, Heeren, Mannert,
and Wahl) for fixing it on any other river than
the Indus. “We have no traces,” he says, “of
any such place as Kaspatyrus west of the Indus.
Alexander and his generals met with no such city,
nor is there any other notice of it in this direction.
On the east of the river we have some vestige of
it in oriental appellations, and Kaspatyrus is con-
nected apparently with Kasmir. The preferable
reading of the name is Kaspa-pyrus. It was so
styled by Hecataeus, and the alteration is probably

109

an error. Now Kagyapa-pur, the city of Kaéyapa,
is, according to Sanskrit writers, the original
designation of Kasmir; not of the province of
the present day, but of the kingdom in its palmy
state, when it comprehended great part of the
Panjab, and extended no doubt as far as, if not
beyond, the Indus.”—Ar. Antiq., p. 187.

In the time of Ptolemy the kingdom of Kagsmir
was the most powerful state in all India. The
dominions subject to its sceptre reached as far
south as the range of the Vindhyas and embraced,
together with the extensive mountain region
wherein the great rivers of the Panjab had their
sources, a great part of the Panjab itself, and the
countries which lay along the courses of the
Jamné and the Upper Ganges. So much we
learn from Ptolemy’s description which is quite
in harmony with what is to be found recor-
ded in the Rdjataranginit, regarding the period
which a little preceded that in which Ptolemy
wrote—that the throne of Kasmir was then
occupied by a warlike monarch called Méghava-
hana who carried his conquests to a great distance
southward (Rdjatar. vol. ITI, pp. 27 sqq.) The valley
proper of Kasmir was the region watered by the
Bidaspés (Jhelam) in the upper part of its course.
Ptolemy assigns to it also the sources of the
Sandabal (Chenab) and of the Rhouadis (Révt)
and thus includes within it the provinces of the
lower Himalayan range that lay between Kaémir
and the Satlaj.

Kylindriné designated the region of lofty
mountains wherein the Vipasd, the Satadru, the
Jamna and the Ganges had their sources. The

110

imhabitants called Kulinda are mentioned in
the Mahdbhérata in a long list there given of tribes
dwelling between Méru and Mandara and upon
the Sailéd& river, under the shadow of the
Bambu forests, whose kings presented lumps of
ant-gold at the solemnity of the mauguration of
Yudhishthira as universal emperor. Cunningham
would identify Kylindriné with “the ancient
kingdom of Jalandhara which since the occupa-
tion of the plains by the Muhammadans has been
confined almost entirely to its hill territories,
which were generally known by the name of
Kangra, after its most celebrated fortress.” Saint-
Martin, however,is unable to accept this identifica-
tion. Aterritory ofthe name of Kuluta, which
was formed by the upper part of the basin of the
Vipasd, and which may be included in the Kylin-
driné of Ptolemy, is mentioned in a list of the
Vardha Samhitdéd. Kuluta was visited by the
Chinese pilgrim, Hiuen Tsiang, who transcribes
the name K’iu-lu-to, a name which still exists
under the slightly modified form of Koluta. (See
Lassen, Ind. Alt. vol. I, p. ,547; Wilson, Ar. Antigq.
p. 135 n.; Saint-Martin, Etude, 217; Cunningham,
Geog. pp. 186—188.

Goryaia designates the territory traversed
by the Gouraios or river of Ghor, which, as
has already been noticed, is the affluent of the
Kabul river now called the lLandai, formed
by the junction of the river of Patjkora and
the river of Swat. Alexander on his march to
India passed through Goryaia, and having crossed
the River Gouraios entered the territory of the
Assakénoi. The passage of the river is thus de-

11]

scribed by Arrian(Anab, lib. IV,c. xxv): ‘Alexander
now advanced with a view to attack the Assaké-
noi, and led his army through the territory of the
Gouraioi. He had great difficulty in crossing
the Gouraios, the eponymous river of the country,
on account of the depth and impetuosity of the
stream, and also because the bottom was so strewn
with pebbles that the men when wading through
could hardly keep their feet.” It can scarcely be
doubted that the Gouraios is the Gauri mentioned
in the 6th Book of the Mahdbhdrata along with the
Suvastu and the Kampana. Arrian’s notion that
it gave its name to the country by which it flowed
has been assented to by Lassen but has been contro-
verted by Saint-Martin, who says (p. 33), “the
name of the Gouraioi did not come, as one would
be inclined to believe, and as without doubt the
Greeks thought, from the river of Gur which
watered their territory; the numerous and once
powerful tribe of Ghori, of which a portion occu-
pies still to this day the same district, to the west
of the Landai, can advance a better claim to the
attribution of the ancient classical name.” Ina
note to this passage he says: ‘‘ Kur, with the
signification of ‘river,’ cowrant, is a primitive
term common to most of the dialects of the Indo-
Germanic family. Hence the name of Kur
(Greek, Kupos, Kuggos, Lat. Cyrus) common to
different rivers of Asia. ... This name (of
Ghoris or Gdrs) ought to have originally the
signification of ‘mountaineers.’ Itis at least a
remarkable fact that all the mountain region
adjacent to the south of the Western Hindi-k6h
and its prolongation in the direction of Herat

112

have borne or still bear the names of Gir, Ghor,
or Ghaur, Gurkan, Gurjistan, &c. Let us add
that garayo in Zend signifies ‘ mountains.’ ”

43, And the cities are these :—

Kaisana ............ gacuseeteibei 120° 34° 20/
Barborana ............seceeneee++- L20° 15’ 33° 40/
GOP Y Bicones erates tanata sacred 122° 34° 45’
Nagara or Dionysopolis ...... 121° 45’ 33°

Drastoka .......ac.csseceees w222.L20° 380% 32° 30’

Kaisana, Barborana and Drastoka
are places unknown, but as the same names occur
in the list of the towns of the Paropanisadai (lib.
VI, c. xviii, 4)itis not improbable, as Saint-Martin
conjectures, that the repetition was not made by
Ptolemy himself, but through a careless error on
the part of some copyist of his works. Cunningham
thinks that Drastoka may have designated a town,
in one of the dards or ‘ valleys’ of the Koh-Daman,
and that Baborana may be Parwan, a place of some
consequence on the left bank of the Ghorband
river in the neighbourhood of Opian or Alexan-
dria Opiane. Kaisana he takes to be the Cartana
of Pliny (lib. VI, c. xxiii) according to whom it
was situated at the foot of the Caucasus and not
far from Alexandria, whilst according to Pto-
lemy it was on the right bank of the Panjshir
river. These data, he says, point to Bégram, which
is situated on the right bank of the Panjshir and
Ghorband rivers immediately at the foot of the
Kohistén hills, and within 6 miles of Opian.
Bégrim also answers the description which Pliny
gives of Cartana as Tetragonis, or the ‘square ;’
for Masson, in his account of the ruins especially

115

notices “some mounds of great magnitude, and
accurately describing a square of considerable
dimensions.” A coin of Eukratidés has on it the
legend Karisiye Nagara or city of Karisi (Geog.
of Anc. Ind., pp. 26—29).

G orya:—Saint-Martin thinks that the position
of this ancient city may be indicated by the situa-
tion of Mola-gouri, a place on the right or western
bank of the River Landai, as marked in one of
Court’s maps in the Jour. Beng. As. Soc., vol. VIII,
p- o4).

Nagara or Dionysopolis :—Lassen has
identified this with Nanghenhar, the Nagara-
hara of Sanskrit, a place mentioned under this
name in the Paurdnik Geography, and algo in a
Buddhistic inscription thought to belong to the
9th century which was found in Behar, The city
was visited by Hiuen Tsiang, who calls it Na-
kie-lo-ho. It was the capital of a kingdom
of the same name, which before the time of the
pilgrim had become subject to Kapisa, a state
which adjoined it on the west. Its territory
consisted of a narrow strip of land which
stretched along the southern bank of the Kabul
river from about Jagdalak as far westward as the
Khaibar Pass. The city was called also Udyana-
pura, that is, ‘the city of gardens,’ and this name
the Greeks, from some resemblance in the sound
translated into Dion ysopolis (a purely Greek
compound, signifying ‘the city of Dionysos,’ the
god of wine), with some reference no doubt to
legends which had been brought from the regions
ef Paropanisos by the companions of Alexander.
This name in a mutilated form is found in-

15 6

114

scribed on a medal of Dionysios, onc of the
Greck kings, who possessed the province of what
is now called Afghanistan in the 2nd century B.c.
Some traces of the name of Udyanapura still
exist, for, as we learn from Masson, “tradition
affirms that the city on the plain of Jalalabad was
called Ajdna,” and the Emperor Baber men-
tions in his Memoirs a place called Adinapur,
which, as the same author has pointed out, is
now Bala-bagh, a village distant about 13 miles
westward from Jalalibid near the banks of the
Surkhrud, a small tributary of the Kabul river.
As regards the site of Nagarahdra, this was
first indicated by Masson, and afterwards fixed
with greater precision by Mr. Simpson, who having
been quartered for four months at Jalalabad
during the late Afghan war took the opportunity of
investigating the antiquities of the neighbourhood,
which are chiefly of a Buddhist character. He
has given an account of his researches in a paper
read before the Royal Asiatic Society, and pub-
lished in the Society’s Journal (Vol. XIII, pp. 183
—207). He there states that he found at a
distance of 4 or 5 miles west from Jalalabad
numerous remains of what must have been an
ancient city, while there was no other place in
all the vicinity where he could discover such
marked evidences of a city having existed. The
ruins in question lay along the right bank of a
stream called the Surkhab, that rushed down
from the lofty heights of the Sufaid-koh, and
reached to its point of junction with the Kibul
river. The correctness of the identification he
could not doubt, since the word ‘ Nagrak,’

115

‘Nagarat,’ or ‘ Nagara’ was still applicd to
the ruins by the natives on the spot, and since
the site also fulfilled all the conditions which
were required to make it answer to the descrip-
tion of the position of the old city as given by
Hiuen Tsiang. (See Lassen, Ind. Alt., vol. I, p.
335; Saint-Martin’s Asie Centrale, pp.52—56; Cun-
ningham, Geog. of Anc. Ind., pp. 44—46 ; Masson,
Various Journeys, vol. III, p. 164).

44. Between the Souastos and the Indus
the Gandarai and these cities :—

PVOR AIS pcan tecseviceteeaceesveds 123° 32°
Nat bi pescacupectondsiices eeiiette 124° 20’ 33° 20’

The Gandarai:—Gandhara is aname of high
antiquity, as it occurs in one of the Vedic hymns
where a wife is represented as saying with re-
ference to her husband, ‘I shall always be for
him a Gandhara ewe.” It is mentioned frequently
in the Mahdbhdrata and other post- Vedic works,
and from these we learn that it contained the two
royal cities of Takshasil& (Taxila) and Push-
kardvati (Peukeladtis) the former situated to
the east and the latter to the west of the Indus.
It would therefore appear that in early times the
Gandharic territory lay on both sides of that river,
though in subsequent times it was confined to the
western side. According to Strabo the country
of the Gandara, which he calls Gandaritis, lay
between the Khoaspés and the Indus, and along
the River Kophés. The name is not mentioned
by any of the historians of Alexander, but it
must nevertheless have been known to the Greeks
as early as the times of Hekataios, who, as we

116

learn from Stephanos of Byzantion, calls Kaspa-
pyros a Gandaric city. Hérodotos mentions the
Gandarioi (Book IIT, c. xci) who includes thenz
in the 7th Satrapy of Darius, along with the
Sattagydai, the Dadikai and the Aparytai. In
the days of Aséka and some of his immediate
successors Gandhaéra was one of the most
flourishing seats of Buddhism. It was accordingly
visited both by Fa-hian and Hiuen Tsiang, who
found it to contain in a state of ruin many mo-
numents of the past ascendancy of their faith.
From data supplied by the narratives of these
pugrims Cunningham has deduced as the boun-
daries of Gandhara, which they call Kien-to-lo,
on the west Lamghan and Jalalabad, on the north
the hills of Sw&t and Bunir, on the east the
Indus, and on the south the hills of Kalabagh.
“Within these limits,” he observes, “stood
several of the most renowned places of ancient
India, some celebrated in the stirring history of
Alexander’s exploits, and others famous in the
miraculous legends of Buddha, and in the sub-
sequent history of Buddhism under the Indo-
Scythian prince Kanishka.” (Geog. of Ind.,
p. 48.) Opinions have varied much with regard
to the position of the Gandarioi. Remnnell placed
them on the west of Baktria in the province after-
wards called Margiana, while Wilson (Ar. Antiq.,
p. 181) took them to be the people south of the
Hindd-kish, from about the modern Kandahar
to the Indus, and extending into the Panjab and
to Kasmir. There is, however, no connexion be-
tween the names of Gandaria and Kandahar.
Proklais is the ancient capital of Gandhira,

117

situated to the west of the Indus, which was men-
tioned in the preceding remarks under its Sanskrit
name Pushkalavati, which means ‘ abounding
in the lotus.’ Its name is given variously by the
Greek writers as Peukelaotis, Peukolaitis, Peukelas,
and Proklais, the last form being common to Pto-
lemy with the author of the Periplés. The first
form is a transliteration of the Pali Pukhalaoti ;
the form Peukelas which is used by Arrian is taken
by Cunningham to be a close transcript of the
Pah Pukkala, and the Proklais of Ptolemy to
be perhaps an attempt to give the Hindt name of
Pokhar instead of the Sanskrit Pushkara. Arrian
describes Peukelas as a very large and populous
city lying near the Indus, and the capital of a
prince called Astés. Ptolemy defines its position
with more accuracy, as being on the eastern bank
of the river of Souasténé. The Periplis informs
us that it traded in spikenard of various kinds,
and in kostus and bdellium, which it received
from different adjacent countries for transmis-
sion to the coast of India. It has been identified
with Hasht-nagar (i.e., eight cities) which lies at
a distance of about 17 miles from Parashéwar
(Peshawar). Perhaps, as Cunningham has suggest-
ed, Hasht-nagar may mean not ‘ eight cities’ but
‘the city of Astés.’

Naulibi:—“ Itis probable,” says Cunningham,
‘that Naulibi is Niléb, an important town which
gave its name to the Indus; but if so itis wrongly
placed by Ptolemy, as Nilab is to the South of the
Kophés” (Geog. of Anc. Ind., p. 48).

45, Between the Indus and the Bidaspés

118

towards the Indus the Arsa territory and
these cities :—

Ithagouros...... eipapaee pease 125° 40’ 33° 20’
WARIAIOy Srvateatepetietieececateaes 125° 32° 15’

Arsa represents the Sanskrit Uraga, the
name of a district which, according to Cunning-
ham, is to be identified with the modern district
of Rash in Dhantiwar to the west of Muzafara-
bad, and which included all the hilly country
between the Indus and KaSmir as far south as
the boundary of Atak. It was visited by Hiuen
Tsiang, who calls it U-la-shi and places it between
Taxila and Kasmir. Pliny, borrowing from Me-
gasthenés, mentions a people belonging to these
parts called the Arsagalitae. The first part
of the name answers letter for letter to the name
in Ptolemy, and the latter part may point to the
tribe Ghilet or Ghilghit, the Gahalata of Sanskrit.
(V. Saint-Martin, Etude, pp. 59-60). Urasa is
mentioned in the Mahdbhdrata and once and
again in the Rdjatarangint.

Ithagouros:—TheIthagouroi are mentioned
by Ptolemy (lib. VI, c. xvi) as a people of Sérika,
neighbouring on the Issédones and Throanoi.
Saint-Martin takes them to be the Dagors or
Dangors, one of the tribes of the Daradas.

Taxiala is generally written as Taxila by
the classical authors. Its name in Sanskrit is
Taksha-sila, a compound which means ‘ hewn rock’
or ‘hewn stone.’ Wilson thinks it may have been
so called from its having been built of that ma-
terial instead of brick or mud, like most other
cities in India, but Cunningham prefers to ascribe

119

to the namea legendary origin. The Pali form of
the name as found in a copper-plate inscription
is Takhasila, which sufficiently accounts for
the Taxila of the Greeks. The city is described by
Arrian (Anab. lib. V, ce. viii) as great and wealthy,
and as the most populous that lay between the
Indus and the Hydaspés. Both Strabo and Hiuen
Tsiang praise the fertility of its soil, and the
latter specially notices the number of its springs
and watercourses. Pliny calls it a famous city,
and states that it was situated on a level where
the hills sunk down into the plains. It was
beyond doubt one of the most ancient cities in
all India, and is mentioned in both of the great
national Epics. At the time of the Makedonian
invasion it was ruled by a prince called Taxilés,
who tendered a voluntary submission of himself
and his kingdom to the great conqueror. About
80 years afterwards it was taken by Asoka, the son
of Vindusara, who subsequently succeeded his
father on the throne of Magadha and established
Buddhism as the state religion throughout his
wide dominions. In the early part of the 2nd
century B.C. it had become a province of the
Greco-Baktrian monarchy. It soon changed
masters however, for in 126 B.C. the Indo-Sky-
thian Sus or Abars acquired it by conquest, and
retained it in their hands till it was wrested from
them by a different tribe of the same nationality,
under the celebrated Kanishka. Near the middle
of the first century A.D. Apollonius of Tyana
and his companion Damis are said to have
visited it, and deseribed it as being about the
size of Nineveh, walled lke a Greek city, and as

120

the residence of a sovereign who ruled over what
of old was the kingdom of Poros. Its streets
were narrow, but well arranged, and such alto-
gether as reminded the travellers of Athens.
Outside the walls was a beautiful temple of
porphyry, wherein was a shrine, round which were
hung pictures on copper tablets representing the
feats of Alexander and Poros. (Priaulx’s Apol-
lon., pp. 13 sqq.) The next visitors we hear of
were the Chinese pilgrims Fa-hian in 400 and
Hiuen Tsiang, first in 630, and afterwards in 643.
To them, as to all Buddhists, the place was especi-
ally interesting, as it was the scene of one of
Buddha’s most meritorious acts of alms-giving,
when he bestowed his very head in charity. After
this we lose sight altogether of Taxila, and do
not even know how or when its ruin was accom-
plished. Its fate is one of the most striking
instances of a peculiarity observable in Indian
history, that of the rapidity with which some of
its greatest capitals have perished, and the
completeness with which even their very names
have been obliterated from living memory. That
it was destroyed long before the Muhammadan
invasion may be inferred from the fact that its
name has not been found to occur in any Muham-
madan author who has written upon India, even
though his account of it begins from the middle
of the tenth century. Even Albirini, who was
born in the valley of the Indus, and wrote so
early as the time of Mahmdd of Ghazni, makes
no mention of the place, though his work abounds
with valuable information on points of geogra-
phy. The site of Taxila has been identified by

121

Ounningham, who has given an account of his
explorations in his Ancient Geography of India
(pp. 104—124). The ruins, he says, cover an area
of six square miles, and are more extensive, more
interesting, and in much better preservation than
those of any other ancient place in the Panjab.
These ruins are at a place ealled Shah-dhéri,
which is just one mile from Kala-ka-scra:, a town
lying to the castward ef the Indus, from which it
is distant a three days’ Journey. Pliny says only a
two days’ journey, but he under-estimated the
distance between Peukelaotis and Taxila, whence
his error.

46. Around the Bidaspés, the country of
the Pandoouoi, in which are these cities :—
Labaka ........ phineweeeeentnnegns 127° 30° 34° 15’
Sagala,otherwise called Euthy-

MOD 1A a aelepecwecieere eo e0. “Oe.
Boukephala: <spaysuiseertecevus 125° 30! 30° 20’
TOMO A cece cesle rivers vantsas 124° 15’ 30°

The Country of the Pandooduoi:—The
Pandya country bere indicated is that which
formed the original seat of the Pandavas or
Lunar race, whose war with the Kauravas or
Solar race is the subject of the Mahdbhdratu.
The Pandavas figure not only in the heroic
legends of India, but*also in its real history,—
princes of their line having obtained for them-
selves sovereignties in various parts of the coun-
try, in Rajputina, in the Panjab, on the banks of
the Ganges, and the very south of the Peninsula.
From a passage in the Lalitavistara we learn that
at the time of the birth of Sakyamuni a Pandava

16 &

122

dynasty reigned at Hastinapura, a city on the
Upper Ganges, about sixty miles to the north-east
of Dehli. Megasthenés, as cited by Phny, men-
tions a great Pandava kingdom in the region of
the Jamnda, of which Mathura was probably the
capital. According to Rajput tradition the cele-
brated Vikramaditya, who reigned at Ujjain (the
Oz éné of the Greeks) about half a century B. C.,
and whose name designates an epoch in use
among the Hindis, was a Pandava prince. From
the 8th to the 12th century of our era Pandavas
ruled in Indraprastha, a city which stood on
or near the site of Dehli. When all this is con-
sidered it certainly seems surprising, as Saint-
Martin has observed (Etude, 206 n.) that the
name of the Pandus is not met with up to the
present time on any historic monument of the
north of India except in two votive inscriptions of
Buddhist stépas at Bhilsa. See also FKtude,
pp. 205, 206.

Labaka:—* This is, perhaps,” says the same
author (p. 222), “the same place as a town of
Lohkot (Lavakéta in Sanskrit) which makes a
creat figure in the Rajput annals among the cities
of the Panjab, but its position is not known for
certain. Wilford, we knownoton what authority,
identified it with Lahor, and Tod admits his
opinion without examining it.”

Sagala, called also Huthymédia:—Sagala
or Sangala (as Arrian less correctly gives the
name) is the Sanskrit Sdkala or Sakala, which in
its Prakrit form corresponds exactly to the name in
Ptolemy. This city is mentioned frequently in the
Mahdbhdrata, from which we learn that it was the

123

eapital of the Madra nation, and lay to the west
of the Ravi. Arrian (Anab. lib. V, cc. xxi, xxii)
placed it to the east of the river, and this error
on his part has led to a variety of erroneous identi-
fications. Alexander, he tells us, after crossing
the Hydraétés (Ravi) at once pressed forward to
Sangala on learning that the Kathaians and other
warlike tribes had occupied that stronghold for the
purpose of opposing his advance to the Ganges.
In reality, however, Alexander on this occasion
had to deal with anenemy that threatened his rear,
and not with an enemy in front. He was in con-
sequence compelled, instead of advancing eastward,
to retrace his steps and recross the Hydradtés.
The error here made by Arrian was detected by
Gencral Cunningham, who, with the help of data
supplied by Hiuen Tsiang discovered the exact
site which Sagala had occupied. This is as nearly
as possible where Sangla-wala-tiba or ‘ Sanglala
hill’ now stands. This Sangala is a hill with
traces of buildings and with a sheet of water
on one side of it. It thus answers closely to the
description of the ancient Sangala in Arrian and
Curtius, both of whom represent it as built on a
hill and as protected on one side from attacks by
a lake or marsh of considerable depth. The hill
is about 60 miles distant from Lahor, where
Alexander probably was when the news about the
Kathaians reached him. This distance is such as
an army by rapid marching could accomplish in
3 days, and, as we learn that Alexander reached
Sangala on the evening of the third after he had
left the Hydradtés, we have here a strongly con-
firmative proof of the correctness of the identi-

124

fication. The Makedonians destroyed Sagala, but
it was rebuilt by Démetrios, one of the Graeo-
Baktrian kings, who in honowr of his father
Euthydémos called it Huthydémia. From
this it would appear that the reading Euthymédia
as given in Nobbe’sand other texts, is erroneous—
(see Cunningham’s Geog. of Anc. Ind., pp. 180—
187) cf. Saint-Martin, pp. 1083—108).

47, The regions extending thence towards
the east are possessed by the Kaspeiraiol,
and to them belong these cities :—

48. Salagissa ...............129° 30! 34° 30/

AStPAGSOS “<stescettoeexetees Ble 15’ | 384° 15’
Tino lasesesd io icnevtenie sas 23° 33° 20°
Batinaere sicscauteoiesieusneeatvens 130° 33° 30°
BUISVAND. /cécecscovtucreencaseees’ 130° 32° 50’
Amakatis ........:cceseee euiacen 128° 15’ 32° 20°
Ostobalasara .......ccceccccceee 29° 32°

AD, Kaspeira ....ccseccoses- 127° 31° 15’
Pasikana ..ccscceceecseceeereseesd 28° 30% 31° 15"
Daidala ........+ Seaton esas: 128° 30° 30"
ATOONE cei cascoientiesievistectass 126° 15’ 30° 10°
Pid Dar Axis veanoanded eandaeicersease 127° 15’ 30°
Liganeira .......6. weal veel 20° 30’ 29°
Khonnamagara .........ceseeeee. 128° 29° 20°

50. Modoura, the city of
TEMPOS cays nics eran enconseeeewetes 125° 27° 30°
GAG Asniire ccc Medersasgaseane, 126° 40° 27° 30°
Krarasa, « Metropolis ......... 123° 26°
KOGWANGAUR: 4.5 seescend seeders 124° 26°.

Boukephala:—Alexander, after the battle

125

on the western bank of the Hydaspés in which
he defeated Poros, ordered two cities to be built,
one Nikaia, so called in honour of his victory
(ntké), and the other Boukephala, so called in
honour of his favourite horse, Boukephalos, that
died here either of old age and fatigue, or from
wounds received in the battle. From the conflict-
ing accounts given by the Greek writers it is
difficult to determine where the latter city stood.
Tf we follow Plutarch we must place it on the
eastern bank of the Hydaspés, for he states
(Vita Alexandre) that Boukephalos was killed in
the battle, and that the city was built on the place
where he fell and was buried. If again we follow
Strabo (lib. XV, c. 1, 29) we must place it on the
west bank at the point where Alexander crossed
the river which in all probability was at Dilawar.
If finally we follow Arrian we must place it on
the same bank, but some miles farther down the
river at Jalalpur, where Alexander had pitched
his camp, and this was probably the real site.
Boukephala seems to have retained its historical
importance much longer than its sister city, for
besides being mentioned here by Ptolemy it is
noticed also in Pliny (lib. VI, c. xx) who says that it
was the chief of three cities that belonged to the
Asini, andin the Periplis (sec. 47) and elsewhere.
Nikaia, on the other hand, is not mentioned by
any author of the Roman period except Strabo,
and that only when he is referring to the times of
Alexander. The name is variously written
Boukephala, Boukephalos, Boukephalia, and
Boukephaleia. Some authors added to it the
surname of Alexandria, and in the Peutinger

126

Tables it appears as Alexandria Bucefalos. The
horse Boukephalos was so named from his ‘ brow’
being very broad, like that of an‘ox.’ For a dis-
cussion on the site of Boukephala see Cunning-
ham’s Geog. of Anc. Ind., pp. 159 sqq.

ITémousa is probably Jamma, a place of
great antiquity, whose chiefs were reckoned at
one time among the five great rajas of the north.
It doubtless lay on the great highway that led
from the Indus to Palibothra.

List of cities of the Kas peiraioi:—This long
list contains but very few names that can be
recognized with certainty. It was perhaps care-
lessly transcribed by the copyists, or Ptolemy
himself may have taken it from some work the
text of which had been already corrupted. Be
that as it may, we may safely infer from the
constancy with which the figures of latitude in
the list decrease, that the towns enumerated were
so many successive stages on some line of road
that traversed the country from the Indus to
Mathura on the Jamna. Salagissa, Aris-
para, Pasikana, Liganeira, Khonna-
magara and Kognandaua are past all
recognition; no plausible conjecture has been
made as to how they are to be identified.

Astrassos:—Thisname resembles the Atrasa
of Idrisi, who mentions it as a great city of the
Kanauj Empire (Etude, p. 226).

Labo kla:—Lassen identified this with Liahor,
the capital of the Panjab (Ind. Alt., vol. ITI, p. 152).
Thornton and Cunningham confirm this identi-
fication. The city is said to have been founded
by Lava or Lo, the son of Rama, after whom it was

127

named Lohiwar. The Labo in Labo-kla must be
taken to represent the name of Lava. As for the
terminal kla, Cunningham (Geog. of Anc. Ind.,
p. 198) would alter it to laka thus, making the
whole name Labolaka for Lavalaka or ‘ the abode
of Lava.’

Batanagra:—Ptolemy places this 2 degrees
to the east of Labokla, but Saint-Martin (p. 226)
does not hesitate to identify it with Bhatnair (fur
Bhattanagara) ‘the town of the Bhatis’ though
it lies nearly three degrees south of Lihor. Yule
accepts this identification. A different reading
is Katanagara.

Amakatis(v.l. Amakastis)—According to
the table this place lay to the S.E. of Labokla
but its place in the map is to the 8.W. of it
Cunningham (pp. 195—197) locates it near She-
kohpur to the south of which are two ruined
mounds which are apparently the remains of
ancient cities. These are called Amba and Kapi
respectively, and are said to have been called
after a brother and a sister, whose names are
combined in the following couplet :—

Amba-Kapa pai larai

Kalpi bahin chhurawan ai.

When strife arose tween Amb and Kap
Their sister Kalpi made it up.

‘The junction of the two names,” Cunningham
remarks, “is probably as old as the time of
Ptolemy, who places a town named Amakatis or
Amakapis to the west of the Ravi, and in the im-
mediate neighbourhood of Labokla or Lihor.”
The distance of the mounds referred to from
Labor is about 25 miles.

128

Ostobalasara (v. 1. Stobolasara) Saint-Martin
has identified this with Thanesar (Sthinésvara in
Sanskrit) a very ancient city, celebrated in the
heroic legends of the Pandavas. Cunningham
however thinks that Thanesar is Ptolemy’s Ba-
tang kaisaraand suggests that we should read
Satan-aisara to make the name approach nearer
to the Sanskrit Sth4négvara—the Sa-ta-ni-shi-
fa-lo of Hiuen Tsiang (p. 381).

Kaspeira:—“ If this name,” says Saint-Martin
(p. 226) ‘is to be applied, as seems natural, to the
capital of Kasmir, it has been badly placed in
the series, having been inserted probably by the
ancient Latin copyists.”

Daidala:—An Indian city of this name is
mentioned by Stephanos of Byzantion, but he
locates it in the west. Curtius also has a Daedala
(lib. VIII, c. x), a region which according to his
account was traversed by Alexander before he
crossed the Khoaspés and laid siege to Mazaga.
Yule in his map places it doubtfully at Dudhal on
the Khaghar river to the east of Bhatneer, near
the edge of the great desert.

Ardoné:—Ahroni, according to Yule, a place
destroyed by Timdar on his march, situated be-
tween the Khaghar and Chitang rivers, both of
which lose themselves in the great desert.

Indabara is undoubtedly the ancient In-
dra prastha, a name which in the common
dialects is changed into Indabatta (Indopat), and
which becomes almost Indabara in the cerebral
pronunciation of the last syllable. The site of
this city was in the neighbourhood of Dehli. It
was the capital city of the Pandavas. The Prakrit

J29

form of the name is Indrabattha. (Lassen, vol.
III, p. 151).

Modoura, the city of the gods :—There is no
difficulty in identifying this with Mathura (Muttra)
one of the most sacred cities in all India, and re-
nowned as the birthplace of Krishna. Its temples
struck Mahmid of Ghazni with such admiration
that he resolved to adorn his own capital in a
similar style. The name is written by the Grecks
Methora as well as Modoura. It is situated on
the banks of the Jamna, higher up than Agra,
from which it is 35 miles distant. It is said to
have been founded by Satrughna, the younger
brother of Rama. As already mentioned it was
a city of the Pandavas whose power extended far
to westward. .

Gagasmira:—Lassen and Saint-Martin agree
in recognizing this as Ajmir. Yule, however, ob-
jects to this identification on the ground that the
first syllable is left unaccounted for, and proposes
Jajhar as asubstitute. Gegasius, he argues, repre-
sents in Plutarch Yay4ti, the great ancestor of
the Lunar race, while Jajhpdir in Orissa was
properly Yayatipira. Hence probably in Jajhar,
which is near Dehli, we have the representative
of Gagasmira.

Krarasa:—Ptolemy calls this a metropolis. It
appears, says Yule, to be Giriraja. ‘ royal hill,’ and
may be Goverdhan which was so called, and was
a capital in legendary times (Ind. Antiq., vol. I,
p. 23). Saint-Martin suggests Varanasi. now
Banaras, which was also a capital. He thinks
that this name and the next, which ends the hist,
were additions of the Roman copyists.

17 c

130

d1. Still further to the east than the Kas-
peiraioi are the Gymnosophistai, and
after these around the Ganges further north
are the Daitikhai with these towns :—

KOnth sssvencccns peeoeisoneveuse 133° 30’ 34° 40°
Margara .......c..00-0.e0e we whic 135° 34°
Batangkaissara and east of

the river.........cecceseesceeseeLd2° 40° 33° 20’
Passala ........ceceees eaiheaidies 137° 34° 15’
ORCA: cctviea avatenSeiiieetates 136° 33° 20°

Gymnosophistai:—This Greek word means
‘Naked philosophers,’ and did not designate any
ethnic or political section of the population, but
a community of religious ascetics or hermits
located along the Ganges probably, as Yule thinks
in the neighbourhood of Hardwar and also accord-
ing to Benfey, of Dehli, Indien, p. 95. For an
account of the Gymnosophists see Ind, Antiq.,
vol. VI, pp. 242—244.

Daitikhai:—tThis name is supposed to repre-
sent the Sanskrit jatika, which means ‘ wearing
twisted or plaited hair.’ The name does not occur
in the lists in this form but Kern, as Yule states,
has among tribes in the north-east ‘ Demons
with elf locks” which is represented in Wilford
by Jati-dhara.

Konta, says Saint-Martin (Etude, p. 321) is
probably Kunda on the left bank of the Jamna
to the south-east of Saharanpar.

Margara:—Perhaps, according to the same
authority, Marhara near the Kalindi River to the
north-east of Agra.

13]

Batangkaissara:—Yule objecting to
Saint-Martin’s identification of this place with
Bhatkashaur in Saharanpur pargana, on the
ground of its being a modern combination, locates
it, but doubtingly, at Kesarwa east of the Jamna,
where the position suits fairly.

Passala:—Pliny mentions a people called
Passalae, who may be recognized as the inhabi-
tants of Paitichala or the region that lay between
the Ganges and the Jamn4, and whose power, ac-
cording to the Mahdbhdrata, extended from the
Himalayas to the Chambal River. Passala we
may assume was the capital of this important
state, and may now, as Saint-Martin thinks, be
represented by Bisauli. This was formerly a
considerable town of Rohilkhand, 30 miles from
Sambhal towards the south-east, and at a like
distance from the eastern bank of the Ganges.

Orza is perhaps Sarsi situated on the Ram-
gang river in the lower part of its course.

52. Below these are the Anikhai with
these towns :—
Persak rect ecnidisenievenacneas 184° 32° 407
SANNADG nhiccsscovecdrtinerncawners 135° 32° 30°
Toana to the east of the river...136° 30’ 32°

58. Below these Prasiaké with these
towns :—

Sambalaka ....... prea aeuias 132° 15’ 31° 50’
AGISGAYE:.. isi jocasesdestucceaetess 136° 31° 30°
Rana Gora’ -cacsvicinscanvesnebaveors 135° 30° 40°
FING 1a -cscanaconctcasa Secs sierberes 137° 30° 20’

Sagala, and east of the river...139° 30° 20°

Amman: achscovkinascietearnns 137° 20’ 31° 40’
Koangkay cissseedevestcrvecseedes 138° 20’ 31° 30’

Anikhai(v. ll. Nanikhai, Manikhai):—
This name cannot be traced to its source. The
people it designated must have been a petty tribe,
as they had only 3 towns, and their territory
must have lain principally on the south bank of
the Jamné. Their towns cannot be identified.
The correct reading of their name is probably
Manikhai, as there is a town on the Ganges in the
district which they must have occupied called
Manikpur. There is further a tribe belonging
to the Central Himalaya region having a name
slightly similar, Manga or Mangars, and the Ain-i-
Akbar? mentions a tribe of Manneyeh which had
once been powerful in the neighbourhood of Dehli
(Etude, p. 322). The form Nanikha would suggest
a people named in the Mahdbhdrata and the
Purdnas, the Naimishas who lived in the
region of the Jamna.

Prasiaké.—This word transliterates the
Sanskrit Prdchyaka which means ‘ eastern’ and
denoted generally the country along the Ganges.
It was the country of the Prasii, whose capital
was Palibothra, now Patnaé, and who in the
times immediately subsequent to the Makedonian
invasion had spread their empire from the mouths
of the Ganges to the regions beyond the Indus.
The Prasiaké of Ptolemy however was a territory
of very limited dimensions, and of uncertain boun-
daries. Though seven of its towns are enumerated
Palibothra is not among them, but is mentioned
afterwards as the capital of the Mandalai and
placed more than 3 degrees farther south than

133

the most southern of them all. Yule remarks upon
this: ‘‘ Where the tables detail cities that are in
Prasiaké, cities among the Poruari, &€., we must
not assume that the cities named were really in
the territories named; whilst we see as a sure
fact in various instances that they were not.
Thus the Mandalae, displaced as we have men-
tioned, embrace Palibothra, which was notoriously
the city of the Prasii; while Prasiaké is shoved
up stream to make room for them. Lassen has
so much faith in the uncorrected Ptolemy that
he accepts this, and finds some reason why
Prasiaké is not the land of the Prasu but some-
thing else.”

Sambalaka is Sambhal, already mentioned
as a town of Rohilkhand. Sambalaka or Sam-
bhala is the name of several countries in India,
but there is only this one town of the name that
is met with in the Eastern parts. It is a very
ancient town and on the same parallel as Dehli.

Adisdara:—This has been satisfactorily iden-
tified with Ahichhatra, a city of great anti-
quity, which figures in history so early as the 14th
century B.C. At this time it was the capital of
Northern Pafichéla. The form of the name in
Ptolemy by a slight alteration becomes Adisadra,
and this approximates closely to the original form.
Another city so called belonged to Central India,
and this appears in Ptolemy as Adeisathra,
which he places in the country of the Béttigoi.
The meaning of the name Ahi-chhattra is ‘ser-
pent umbrella’ and is explained by a local legend
concerning Adi-Rija and the serpent demon,
that while the Raja was asleep a serpent formed

134

uw canopy over him with its expanded hood. The
fort is sometimes called Adikot, though the com-
moner name is Ahi-chhatar, sometimes written
Ahikshétra. The place was visited by Hiuen
Tsiang. In modern times it was first visited by
Captain Hodgson, who describes it as the ruins of
an ancient fortress several miles in circumference,
which appears to have had 34 bastions, and is
known in the neighbourhood by the name of the
Pandu’s Fort. It was visited afterwards by Cun-
ningham (Ane. Geog. of Ind., pp. 8359—363).

Kanagora:—This, as Saint-Martin points
out, may be a corruption for Kanagoza, a form of
Kanyakubja or Kanauj. This city of old re-
nown was situated on the banks of the Kalinadi,
a branch of the Ganges, in the modern district of
Farrukhabaéd. The name applies not only to the
city itself but also to its dependencies and to the
surrounding district. The etymology (kanyd, ‘a
girl,’ and kubja, ‘ round-shouldered’ or ‘ crooked’)
refers to a legend concerning the hundred daughters
of Kusanabha, the king of the city, who were all
rendered crooked by Vayu for non-compliance
with his licentious desires (see also Beal, Bud-
dhist Records, vol. I, p. 209). The ruins of the
ancient city are said to occupy a site larger than
that of London. The name recurs in another list
of towns under the form Kanvugiza, and is there
far displaced.

Kindia may be identified with Kant, an
ancient city of Rohilkhand, the Shahjahanpur of
the present day. Yule hesitates whether to identify
it thus or with Mirzapur on the Ganges.

Sagala:—“Sagala,” says Saint-Martin (Etude,

135

p- 326) “would carry us to a town of Sakula or
Saghéla, of which mention is made in the Bud-
dhist Chronicles of Ceylon among the royal cities
of the North of India, and which Turnour be-
lieves to be the same town as KuSinagara,
celebrated as the place where Buddha SAkyamuni
obtained Nirvdna. Such an identification would
carry us to the eastern extremity of Koéala, not
far from the River Gandaki.

K oangka ought to represent the Sanskrit
kanaka, ‘gold. Mention is made of a town
called in the Buddhistic legends Kanaka-
vati (abounding in gold), but no_ indication is
given as to where its locality was (Etude, p. 326).

54. South of this Saurabatis with these
towns :—

Empélathra ...........ecee eee 130° 30°
Nadoubandagar............ veeee- 138° 40" 29°
(PamnasIs sseowssstideiec aed oo 29°
Kouraporeina ...........e.. ee: 130° 29°

Saurabatis:—tThis division is placed below
Prasiaké. The ordinary reading is Sandra.
batis, which is a transliteration of the Sanskrit
Chandravati. The original, Saint-Martin suggests,
may have been Chhattravati, which is used as a
synonym of Ahikshctra, and applies to that part
of the territory of Pafichéla, which lies to the
east of the Ganges. He thinks it more than
probable that Sandrabatis, placed as it is just
after a group of towns, two of which belong to
Ahikshétra, does not differ from this Chhattravati,
the only country of the name known to Sanskrit
Geography in the Gangetic region. None of the

four towns can be identified. (See Lassen, Lad.
Alt. vol. I, p. 602; Etude, p. 326). Yule, however,
points out that this territory is one of those
which the endeavour to make Ptolemy’s names
cover the whole of India has greatly dislocated,
transporting it from the S. W. of Rajputana to
the vicinity of Bahar. His map locates Sandra-
bitis (Chandrabati) between the River Mahi and
the Ardvali mountains.

oo. And further, all the country along the
rest of the course of the Indus is called by the
general nameof Indo-Skythia. Of this the
insular portion formed by the bifurcation of the
river towards its mouth is Pataléné, andthe
region above this is Abiria, and the region
about the mouths of the Indus and Gulf of
Kanthi is Syrastréné. The towns of
Indo-Skythia are these : to the west of the river
at some distance therefrom :—

D6. Artoarta ............... 121° 30’ 31° 15’
Andrapana .ce:.sccescssvosceeacees 121° 15’ 30° 40’
DSR OA Ay pn bgere ttt cer oeeeNetees 122° 20’ 32°
Banagara cecsecsccscesescsccssaes 122° 15’ 30° 40’
Kodrana.,........ i heseceneneas JO 15" 29°20"

Ptolemy from his excursion to the Upper Ganges
now reverts to the Indus and completes its geogra-
phy by describing Indo-Skythia, a vast region
which comprised all the countries traversed by the
Indus, from where it is joined by the river of Kabul
onward to the ocean. We have already pomted
out how Ptolemy's description is here vitiated
by his making the combined stream of the Panjab

137

rivers join the Indus only one degree below
its junction with the Kabul, instead of six
degrees, or half way between that point and
the ocean. The egregious error he has here
committed seems altogether inexcusable, for what-
ever may have been the sources from which he
drew his information, he evidently neglected the
most accurate and the most valuable of all—the
records, namely, of the Makedonian invasion as
transmitted in writings of unimpeachable credit.
At best, however, it must be allowed the determi-
nation of sites in the Indus valley is beset with pecu-
liar uncertainty. The towns being but very slightly
built are seldom of more than ephemeral duration,
and if, as often happens they are destroyed by
inundations, every trace is lost of their ever
having existed. The river besides frequently
changes its course and leaves the towns which it
abandons to sink into decay and utter oblivion.**
Such places again as still exist after escaping
these and other casualties, are now known under
names either altogether different from the an-
cient, or so much changed as to be hardly recog-
nizable. This instability of the nomenclature is
due to the frequency with which the valley has
been conquered by foreigners. The period at

2* Aristoboulos as we learn from Strabo (lib. XV, c. i. 19)
when sent into this part of India saw a tract of land
deserted which contained 1,000 cities with their depen-
dent villages, the Indus having left its proper channel,
was diverted into another, on the left hand much deeper,
and precipitated itself into it like a cataract so that it
no longer watered the country by the usual inundation
on the right hand, from which it had receded, and this
was elevated above the level, not only of the new chan-

nel of the river, but above that of the (mew) inun-
dation.

18 G

138

which the Skythians first appeared in the valley
which was destined to bear their name for several
centuries has been ascertained with precision
from Chinese sources. We thence gather that
a wandering horde of Tibetan extraction called
Yuei-chi or Ye-tha in the 2nd century B.C.
left Tangut, their native country, and, advancing
westward found for themselves a new home amid
the pasture-lands of Zungaria. Here they had
been settled for about thirty years when the in-
vasion of a new horde compelled them to migrate
to the Steppes which lay to the north of the
Jaxartes. In these new seats they halted for only
two years, and in the year 128 B. C. they crossed
over to the southern bank of the Jaxartes where
they made themselves masters of the rich pro-
vinces between that river and the Oxus, which had
lately before belonged to the Grecian kings of
Baktriana. This new conquest did not long
satisfy their ambition, and they continued to
advance southwards till they had overrun in suc-
cession Hastern Baktriana, the basin of the
Kophés, the basin of the Etymander with Ara-
khosia, and finally the valley of the Indus and
Syrastréné. This great horde of the Yetha was
divided into several tribes, whereof the most
powerful was that called in the Chinese annals
Kwei-shwang. It acquired the supremacy over
the other tribes, and gave its name to the king-
dom of the Yetha. They are identical with the
Kushans. The great King Kanishka, who
was converted to Buddhismand protected that faith
was a Kushan. He reigned in the first century of
the Christian wxra and ruled from Baktriana to

139

Kaémir, and from the Oxus to Suradshtra. These
Kushans of the Panjab and the Indus are no
others than the Indo-Skythians of the Greeks.
In the Rdjatarangini they are called Saka and
Turushka (Turks). Their prosperity could not
have been of very long duration, for the
author of the Periplés, who wrote about half a
century after Kanishka’s time mentions that
** Minnagar, the metropolis of Skythia, was gov-
erned by Parthian princes” and this statement
is confirmed by Parthian coins being found
everywhere in this part of the country. Max
Miller, in noticing that the presence of Turanian
tribes in India as recorded by Chinese historians
is fully confirmed by coins and inscriptions and
the traditional history of the country such as it
is, adds that nothing attests the presence of
these tribes more clearly than the blank in the
Brahmanical literature of India from the first
century before to the 3rd after our era. He
proposes therefore to divide Sanskrit literature
into two—the one (which he would call the
ancient and natural) before, and the other (which
he would call the modern and artificial) after the
Turanian invasion. In his Indo-Skythia Ptolemy
includes Pataléné, Abiria and Syras-
tréné, The name does not occur in Roman
authors.

Pataléné, so called from its capital Patala,
was the delta at the mouth of the Indus. It was
not quite so large asthe Egyptian delta with which
the classical writers frequently compareit. Before
its conquest by the Skythians it had been subject
to the Greco-Baktrian kings. Its reduction to

140

their authority is attributed by Strabo (lib. XI, ¢.
xii, 1) to Menander or to Démetrios, the son of
Euthydémos.

A biria:—The country of the Abhiras (the
Ahirs of common speech) lay to the east of the
Indus, above where it bifurcates to form the delta.
In Sanskrit works their name is employed to de-
signate generally the pastoral tribes that inhabit
the lower districts of the North-West as far as
Sindh. That Abiria is the Ophir of Scripture
is an opinion that has been maintained by scho-
lars of eminence.

Syrastr énérepresentstheSanskrit Surashtra
(the modern Sorath) which is the name in the
Mahdbhdrata and the Purdnas for the Peninsula
of Gujarat. In after times it was called Valabhi.
Pliny (lb. VI, c. xx) in his enumeration of
the tribes of this part of India mentions the
Horatae, who have, he says, a fine city, defend-
ed by marshes, wherein are kept man-eating
crocodiles that prevent all entrance except by
a single bridge. The name of this people is
no doubt a corruption of Sorath. They have an
inveterate propensity to sound the letter S as
an H.

Ptolemy distributes into six groups the names
of the 41 places which he specifies as belonging to
the Indus valley and its neighbourhood. The
towns of the second group indicate by their relative
positions that they were successive stages on the
great caravan route which ran parallel with the
western bank of the river all the way from the
Kophés junction downward to the coast. The
towns of the fourth group were in like manner

141

nuccessive stages on another caravan route, that
which on the eastern side of the river traversed
the country from the great confluence with the
combined rivers of the Panjab downward to the
Delta. The towns of the first group (5 in number)
belonged to the upper part of the valley, and were
situated near the Koéphés junction. They are
mentioned in a list by themselves, as they did not
he on the great line of communication above
mentioned. The third group consists of the two
towns which were the chief marts of commerce
in the Delta. The towns of the fifth group (7 in
number) lay at distances more or less considerable
from the eastern side of the Delta. The towns
of the sixth group were included in the territory of
the Khatriaioi, which extended on both sides
of the river from its confluence with the Panjab
rivers as far as the Delta. None of them can
now be identified (See Etude, pp. 234 sqq.)
and of the first group—Artoarta, Sabana,
Kodrana cannot be identified.

Andrapana:—Cunningham (p. 86) thinks
this is probably Draband, or Deraband, near Dera-
Ismail- Khan.

Banagara (for Bana-nagara):—Banna or
Banu is often cited as the name of a town and
a district that lay on the line of communica-
tion between Kabul and the Indus. It was visited
both by Fa-hian and Hiuen Tsiang. The former
calls the country Po-na, 7.e., Bana. The latter
calls it Fa-la-na, whence Cunningham conjec-
tures that the original name was Varana or Barna.
It. consisted of the lower half of the valley of the
Kuram river, and was distant from Lamghan a

142

15 days’ journey southward. It is one of the
largest, richest and most populous districts to the
west of the Indus.—(See Geog. of Anc. Ind., pp.
84-86).

57. And along the river :—

Bmbolinia.-. ticiedectetadetives 124° 31°
Pentagramma ....... pian aut rei 124° 30° 20°
ASIQTAMIMA -.icessescscceceeres 123° 29° 30’
WIGUSAL - asp morse sean Me oxdeaaues 121° 30’ 28° 50’
Aristobathra ............. erence 120° 27° 30°
Azika ..... Se csusedeanoes iescuiee 119° 20’ 27°

58. Pardabathra ............ 117° 23° 30°
Pisk S) taot ae asaiea esau 116° 30’ 25°
Pasipéda..........4. aii ee euaeaees 114° 30° 24°
OUST ATE, «cg seven dete cud bieiees 112° 22° 20’
OMG wisdisuets cebceee aieotens ..111° 21° 30’
Kola Ka ccc exasceecvns Geeta 110° 30’ 20° 40’

Embolima was situated on the Indus at a
point about 60 miles above Attak, where the river
escapes with great impetuosity from a long and
narrow gorge, which the ancients mistook for its
source. Here, on the western bank, rises the fort
of Amb, now in ruins, crowning a position of
remarkable strength, and facing the small town
of Derbend, which lies on the opposite side of
the river. The name of Amb suggested that
it might represent the first part of the name of
Emb-olima, and this supposition was raised to
certitude when it was discovered that another
ruin not far off, crowning a pinnacle of the same
hill on which Amb is seated, preserves to this
day in the tradition of the inhabitants the

143

name of Balimah. Embolima is mentioned by
Arrian (lib, IV, c. xxvii) who represents it as
situated at no great distance from the rock of
A ornos—which as Abbott has shown, was Mount
Mahdaban, a hill abutting on the western bank of
the Indus, about eight miles west from Embolima.
It is called by Curtius Ecbolima (Anab. lib.
VIII, c. xii) but he gives its position wrongly—at
sixteen days’ march from the Indus. Ptolemy
assigns to it the same latitude and longitude
which he assigns to the point where the Kabul
river and Indus unite. It was erroneously sup-
posed that Embolima was a word of Greek origin
from éxBodAn, ‘the mouth of a river’ conf. Cun-
ningham, Geog. of Anc. Ind., pp. 52 ff.).

Pentagramma:—To the north of the Ko-
phés at a distance of about forty milesS.W. from
Embolima is a place called Panjpir, which agrees
closely both in its position and the signification
of its name (5 towns) with the Pentagramma of
Piolemy.

Asigrammaand the five towns that come
after it cannot be identified.

Pasipéda:—Saint-Martin thinks this may be
the Besmeid of the Arab Geographers, which, as
they tell us was a town of considerable importance,
lying east of the Indus on the route from Man-
stra to Multan. Its name is not to be found
in any existing map; but as the Arab itineraries
all concur in placing it between Rond (now Roda)
and Multan, at a three days’ journey from the
former, and a two days’ journey from the latter,
we may determine its situation to have been as far
down the river as Mithankot, where the great con-

144.

fluence now takes place. If the fact that Bes-
meid was on the eastern side of the river staggers
our faith in this identification, Saint-Martin would
remind us that this part of the tables is far from
presenting us with a complete or systematic treat-
ment of the subject, and that the only way open
to us of restoring some part at least of these lists
is to have recourse to synonyms. He contends
that when we find inthe Arab itineraries (which
are documents of the same nature precisely as those
which Ptolemy made use of) names resembling
each other placed in corresponding directions, we
ought to attach more weight to such coincidences
than to the contradictions real, or apparent, which
present themselves in the text of our author.
Analogous transpositions occur in other lists, as,
for instance, in the list of places in the Narmada
basin. Cunningham, thinking it strange that a
notable place of great antiquity hke Sehwan,
which he identifies with Sindomana, should not
be mentioned by Ptolemy under any recognizable
name, hazards the conjecture that it may be either
his Piska or Pasipéda. “If we take,” he says,
‘‘Haidarébid as the most probable head of the
Delta in ancient times, then Ptolemy’s Sydros,
whichis on the eastern bank of the Indus, may
perhaps be identified with the old site of Mattali,
12 miles above Haidaribad and his Pasipéda
with Sehwan. The identification of Ptolemy’s
Oskana with the Oxykanus or Portikanus of
Alexander and with the great mound of Mahorta
of the present day is I think almost certain. If
so, either Piska or Pasipéda must be Sehwan.”’
Sousikana:—lt is generally agreed that this

145

is a corrupt reading for Musikana, the royal
city of Musikanos, who figures so conspicuously in
the records of the Makedonian Invasion, and whose
kingdom was described to Alexander as being
the richest and most populous in all India. Cun-
ningham (p. 257) identifies this place with
Alor, which was for many ages the capital of the
powerful kingdom of Upper Sindh. Its ruins, as
he informs us, are situated to the south of a gap in
the low range of limestone hills which stretches
southwards from Bakhar for about 20 miles until
it is lost in the broad belt of sand-hills which
bound the Nara or old bed of the Indus on the
west. ° Through this gap a branch of the Indus
once flowed which protected the city on the north-
west. To the north-east it was covered by a
second branch of the river which flowed nearly
at right angles to the other at a distance of three
miles. When Alér was deserted by the river,
it was supplanted by the strong fort of Bakhar
(p. 258). The same author thinks it probable that
Alér may be the Binagara of Ptolemy, as it is
placed on the Indus to the eastward of Oskana,
which appears to be the Oxykanus of Arrian and
Curtius.

Bonis:—The table places this at the point of
bifurcation of the western mouth of the river
and an interior arm of it. Arab geographers
mention a town called Bania in Lower Sindh,
situated at the distance of a single journey below
Mansuré. ‘This double indication wovld ap-
pear to suit very well with Banna, which stands
at the point where the Piniari separates from the
principal arm about 23 miles above Thattha. Its

19 c

146

position is however on the eastern bank of the
river. (Etude, pp. 238, 239.)

Koélaka or Kéolala is probably identical
with the Krodkala of Arrian’s Indika (sec. 21),
which mentions it as a small sandy island where
the fleet of Nearkhos remained at anchor for
oneday. Itlayin the bay of Karachi, which is
situated in a district called Karkalla even now.

59. And in the islands formed by the river
are these towns :—

Pa baled GA cecchasewwatesecacevens 112° 30’ 21°
Barbarei.,.......... seuaie eee 118° 15’ 22° 30’

60. And east of the river at some distance
therefrom are these towns :—

Xodraké ... ........cecsceeers .-,--116° 24°
Sarbana ..........6. episotseds seeoak 16° 22° 50’
AUXOAMIS .2c..ccecccceeessccccsee db 5° 30’ 22° 20°
IAIN -. Soci ccdeewcteveseun tees es 114° 15’ 22°
Orbadarou or Ordabari......... 115° 22°
Theophila ......ccssssescessesees 114° 15’ 21° 10/
Astakaprar sisccccets deiseccsecesous 114°40% 20°15’

Patala as we learn from Arrian was the
greatest city in the parts of the country about
the mouths of the Indus. It was situated, he
expressly states, at the head of the Delta where
the two great arms of the Indus dispart. This
indication would of itself have sufficed for its
identification, had the river continued to flow in
its ancient channels. It has, however, frequently
changed its course, and from time to time shifted
the point of bifurcation. Hence the question
vegarding the site of Patala has occasioned much

147

controversy. Rennell and Vincent, followed by
Burnes and Ritter, placed it at Thattha; Droysen,
Benfey, Saint-Martinand Cunningham, at Haidara-
bad (the Nirankot of Arab writers), and McMurdo,
followed by Wilson and Lassen, at a place about 90
miles to the north-east of Haidaribad. The last
supposition is quite untenable, while the arguments
in favour of Haidarabad, which at one time was
called Patalapur*®’ appear to be quite conclusive. (See
Saint-Martin, pp. 180 ff., Cunningham, pp. 279—
287). Patala figures conspicuously in the history
of the Makedonian imvasion. In its spacious
docks Alexander found suitable accommodation
for his fleet which had descended the Indus, and
here he remained with it for a considerable time.
Seeing how advantageously it was situated for
strategy as well as commerce, he strengthened it
with a citadel, and made it amuilitary centre for
controlling the warlike tribes in its neighbour-
hood. Before finally leaving India he made two
excursions from it to the ocean, sailing first down
the western and then down the eastern arm of
the river. Patala in Sanskrit mythology was
the name of the lowest of the seven regions in
the interior of the earth, and hence may have
been applied to denote generally the parts where
the sun descends into the under world, the land
of the west, as in contrast to Prachayaka, the
land of the east. Pdtala in Sanskrit means ‘the

25 «¢The Brahmans of Sehv4n have stated to us that
according to local legends recorded in their Sanskrit
books Kaboul is the ancient Chichapolapoura ; Multan,
Prahladpur; Tattah, Déval, Haidardébad, Néran, and
more anciently Patalpuri.”” Dr. J. Wilson, Journ.
Bombay Asiat. Soc., vol. IIT, 1850, p. 77.

148

trumpet-flower,’ and Cunningham thinks that
the Delta may have been sv called from some
resemblance in its shape to that of this flower.
The classic writers generally spell the name as
Pattala.

Barbarei:—The position of Barbarei, like that
of Patala, has been the subject of much discussion.
The table of Ptolemy places it to the north of that
city, but erroneously, since Barbarei was a mani-
time port. It is mentioned in the Periplis under
the name of Barbarikon, as situated on the
middle mouth of the Indus. D’Anville in opposi-
tion to all the data placed it at Debal Sindhi, the
great emporium of the Indus during the middle
ages, or at Karachi, while Elliot, followed by
Cunningham, placed it at an ancient city, of
which some ruins are still to be found, called
Bambhara, and situated almost midway between
Karachi and Thattha on the old western braneh of
the river which Alexander reconnoitred. Burnes
again, followed by Ritter, placed it at Richel,
and Saint-Martin a little further still to the
east at Bandar Vikkar on the Hajamari mouth,
which has at several periods been the main
channel of the river.

Xodrakéand Sarbana or Sardana:—As
the towns in this list are given in their order from
north to south, and as Astakapra, the most south-
ern, was situated on the coast of the peninsula of
Gujarat, right opposite the mouth of the river
Narmada, the position of Xodraké and the other
places in the list must be sought for in the neigh-
bourhood of the Ran of Kachh. Xodraké and
Sarbana have not been identified, but- Yule doubt-

149

ingly places the latter on the Sambhar Lake.
Lassen takes Xodrake to be the capital of the
Xudraka, and locates it in the corner of land
between the Vitasté and Chandrabhaga (Ind. Alt.,
vol. III, p. 145).

Asinda, according to Saint-Martin, may per-
haps be Sidhpur (Siddhapura), a town on the
river Sarasvati, which rising in the Aravalis
empties into the Gulf of Kaehh (pp. 246-247).

Auxoamisor Axumis:—Thesameauthority
would identify this with Sami, a place of import-
ance and seat of a Muhammadan chief, lying a
little to the east of the Sarasvati and distant
about twenty-five miles from the sea. Yule how-
ever suggests that Ajmu may be its modern
representation.

Orbadarou or Ordabari:—Yuledoubtful-
ly identifies this with Arbuda or Mount Abd, the
principal summit of the ArAvalis. Pliny mentions
alongside of the Horatae (in Gujarat) the Od-
omboerae which may perhaps be a different
form of the same word. The name Udumbara is
one well-known in Sanskrit antiquity, and desig-
nated a royal race mentioned in the Harivansa.

T heop hila:—This is aGreek compound mean-
ing ‘dear to God,’ and is no doubt a translation
of some indigenous name. Lassen has suggested
that of Sardhur, in its Sanskrit form Suradara,
which means ‘adoration of the gods.’ Sardhur is
situated in a valley of the Révata mountains
so celebrated in the legends of Krishna. Yule
suggests Dewaliya, a place on the isthmus,
which connects the peninsula with the mainland.
Dr. Burgess, Than, the chief town of a district

150

traditionally known as Deva-Pafichal, lying a
little further west than Dewaliya. Col. Watson
writes :—‘‘ The only places I can think of for
Theophila are—1. Gandi, the ancient Gundigadh,
one anda halfortwo miles further up the Hathap
river, of which city Hastakavapra was the port.
This city was one of the halting-places of the
Bhaunagar Brahmans ere they came to Gogha. It
was no doubt by them considered dear to the gods.
It was connected with Hastakavapra and was a
city of renown and ancient. 2. Pardwa or Priya-
déva, an old village, about four or five miles west
of Hathap. Itis said to have been contemporary
with Valabhi, and there is an ancient Jain temple
there, and it is said that the Jains of Gundigadh
had their chief temple there. 3. Dévagana, an
ancient village at the foot of the west slopes of
the Khokras about 18 miles from Hathap to the
westward.”

Astakapra:—This is mentioned in the Peri-
plis (sec. 41), as being near a promontory on the
eastern side of the peninsula which directly
confronted the mouth of the Narmada on the
opposite side of the gulf. It has been satisfactorily
identified with Hastakavapra, aname which occurs
in a copper-plate grant of Dhruvaséna I, of
Valabhi, and which is now represented by Hathab
near Bhavnagar. Buhler thinks that the Greek
form is not derived immediately from the Sans-
krit, but from an intermediate old Prakrit word
Hastakampra. (See Ind. Ant., vol. V, pp. 204, 314.

61. Along the river are these towns :—
Panasa .......... be cateaexs tesekeo GU" Uae”
Bod aia: ss. veseeyeehassctee esas 121°15’) 28° 18’

Naagramma, ........5.0-.c0se00. 120° 27°

Kamigara siecveicikctsdeusseere 119° 26° 20’
Dinsgara. Liscersascatsimaduces 118° 25° 20’
Para bali-cesyveastiers se usartescess 116° 30’ 24° 80’
SV Gros! -spo.eiresiavesctescvegecess 14> 21° 20’
BW pitausaingeccsicecasiescvatecavess 118° 45’ = 22° 30’
MOMDD ve aeieesecpecsusetss daates: 113° 30’ 21° 30’

Panasa:—The table places Panasa one degree
farther south than the confluence of the Zara.
dros and the Indus. Ptolemy, as we have seen,
egregiously misplaced this confluence, and we
cannot therefore from this indication learn more
than that Panasa must have been situated lower
down the Indus than Pasipéda (Besmaid) and
Alexandria of the Malli which lay near the con-
fluence. A trace of its name Saint-Martin thinks
is preserved in that of Osanpur, a town on the
left of the river, 21 miles below Mittankét.

Boudaia:—According to Saint-Martin this is
very probably the same place as a fort of Budhya
or Bodhpur, mentioned in the Arab chronicles of
the conquest of Upper Sindh and situated proba-
bly between Alor and Mittankot. Yule identifies
it with Budhia, a place to the west of the Indus
and south from the Bolan Pass.

Naagramma:—This Yule identifies with
Naoshera, a place about 20 miles to the south of
Besmaid. Both words mean the same, ‘new
town.’

Kamigara:—The ruins of Arér which are
visible at a distance of four miles to the south-east
of Kori, are still known in the neighbourhood under
the name of Kaman. If to this word we add

162 —

the common Indian affix nugar— city, we have a
near approach to the Kamigara of Ptolemy.

Binagara:—This some take to be a less
correct form than Minnagar given in the Peri-
pls, where it is mentioned as the metropolis of
Skythia, but under the government of Parthian
princes, who were constantly at feud with each
other for the supremacy. Its position is very
uncertain. Cunningham would identify it with
Alor. Yule, following McMurdo, places it much
further south near Bréhmanabad, which is some
distance north from Haidarébad. The Periplis
states that it lay in the interior above Barbarikon
(sec. 38).

Xoana:—Yule suggests that this may be
Sewana, a place in the country of the Bhaulingas,
between the desert and the Aravalis.

62. The parts east of Indo-Skythia along
the coast belong to the country of Larike, and
here in the interior to the west of the river
Namados is a mart of commerce, the city of

Dany Caza: *pectccocsmewccanweotes 118° 15’ 17° 20’

63. To the east of the river :—
AUCTINAGATA~ cc ssesisnh au Movawsnws 118° 15’ 22° 30°
Siripalla. -sesvevessevs ticieeal S30 21°30"
Bammogoura.......cceceseeeesee: 116° 20° 45°
SAZATUION: ciswcawenieseceayetourd: 115° 30’ 20° 30’
ZiCVOCCLOl: /2esditadsewacawoinatwes 116° 20’ 19° 50’
Ozéné, the capital of Tias-

tanes .......66 seekatceiweriuials 117° 20°
Mima@para: .sscissavessadet ereeaen 115° 10° 19° 380’
DYBbOUTA cso cnaenGacutu endorse’ 115° 50’ 18° 50’

Naga 2c. ceunidoeiaisacencisseee ee 17°

153

Larik é:—Lardésa was an early name for the
territory of Gujarat and the Northern Konkan.
The name long survived, for the sea to the west
of that coast was in the early Muhammadan
time called the sea of Lar, and thelanguage spoken
on its shores was called by Mas’tdi, Lari (Yule’s
Marco Polo, vol. II, p.353,n.). Ptolemy’s Lariké was
a political rather than a geographical division and
as such comprehended in addition to the part of
the sea-board to which the name was strictly
applicable, an extensive inland territory, rich in
agricultural and commercial products, and possess-
ing large and flourishing towns, acquired no doubt
by military conquest.

Barygaza, now Bharoéch, which is still a
large city, situated about 30 miles from the sea
on the north side of the river Narmad4, and on an
elevated mound supposed to be artificial, raised
about 80 feet above the level of the sea. The
place is repeatedly mentioned in the Periplis.
At the time when that work was written, it
was the greatest seat of commerce in Western
India, and the capital of a powerful and flourish-
ing state. The etymology of the name is thus
explained by Dr. John Wilson (Indian Castes,
vol. II, p. 113): “The Bhirgavas derive their
designation from Bhargava, the adjective form of
Bhrigu, the name of one of the ancient Rishis.
Their chief habitat is the district of Bharéch,
which must have got its name from a colony of
the school of Bhrigu having been early established
in this Kshétra, probably granted to them by
some conqueror of the district. In the name
Barugaza given to it by Ptolemy, we have a

20 G

[54

Greek corruption of Bhrigukshétra (the territory
of Bhrigu) or Bhrigukachha, ‘ the tongue-land’ of
Bhrigu.” The illiterate Gujarétis pronounce
Bhrigukshétra as Bargacha, and hence the Greek
form of the name.

Agrinagara:—This means ‘the town of the
Agri.’ Yule places it at Agar, about 30 miles to
the N. E. of Ujjain.

Siripalla:—A place of this name (spelt
Séripala) has already been mentioned as situated
where the Namados (Narmada) changes the direc-
tion of its course. Lassen therefore locates it in
the neighbourhood of Haump, where the river
turns to southward.

Bammogoura:—In Yule’s map this is iden-
tified with Pavangarh, a hilltu the north of the
Narmada.

Sazantion:—This may perhaps be identical
with Sajintra, a small place some distance north
from the upper extremity of the Bay of Khambat.

Zérogerei:—This is referred by Yule to
Dhar, a place 8. W. of Ozéné, about one degree.

Ozén6:—This isa transliteration of Ujja-
yini, the Sanskrit name of the old and famous
eity of Avanti, still called Ujjain. It was the
capital of the celebrated Vikramaditya, who
having’ expelled the Skythians and thereafter
established his power over the greater part of
India, restored the Hindd monarchy toits ancient
splendour. It was one of the seven sacred cities
of the Hindds, and the first meridian of their
astronomers. We.learn from the Mahdvansa
that Asdka, the grandson of Chandragupta (Sand-
rakottos) was sent by his father the king of

158

Pitaliputra (Patna) to be the viceroy of Ujjain,
and also that about two centuries later (B.C. 95)
a certain Buddhist high priest took with him
40,000 disciples from the Dakkhinagiri temple
at Ujjain to Ceylon to assist there in laying
the foundation stone of the great Dagaha at
Anuradhapura. Half a century later than this is
the date of the expulsion of the Skythians by
Vikramiditya, which forms the era in Indian
Chronology called Sasiwvat (57 B.C.) The next,
notice of Ujjain is to be found in the Periplis
where we read (Sec. 48) “ Eastward from Barygaza
is a city called Ozéné, formerly the capital where
theking resided. From this place is brought down
to Barygaza every commodity for local consump-
tien or expert to other parts of India, onyx-stones,
porcelain, fine muslins, mallow-tinted cottons and
the ordinary kinds in great quantities. Itimports
from the upper country through Proklais for trans-
port to the coast, spikenard, kostos and bdellium.”
From this we see that about a century and a
half after Vikramdditya’s wera Ujjain was still a
flourishing city, though it had lost something of
ats former importance and dignity from being no
longer the residence of thesovereign. The ancient
city no longer exists, but its ruims can be traced
at the distance of a mile from its modern successor.
Ptolemy tells us that in his time Ozéné was the
capital of Tiastanés. This name transliterates
Chashtina, one which is found on coins and the
cave temple inscriptions of Western India. This
prince appears probably to have been the founder
of the Kshatrapa dynasty of Western India
(see Ind. Alt., vol. III, p. 171).

156

Minagara is mentioned in the Periplis,
where its name is more correctly given as Min-
nagar, i.e. ‘the city of the Min’ or Skythians.
This Minagara appears to have been the residence
of the sovereign of Barygaza. Ptolemy places
it about 2 degrees to the S. W. of Ozéné. Yule
remarks that it is probably the Manekir of Mas’t-
di, who describes it as a city lying far inland
and among mountains. Benfey doubts whether
there were in reality two cities of this name, and
thinks that the double mention of Minnagar in the
Periplis is quite compatible with the supposition
that there was but one city so called. (Indien, p. 91).

Tiatoura:—This would transliterate with
Chittur, which, however, lies too far north for the
position assigned to Tiatoura. Yule suggests,
but doubtingly, its identity with Chandur. This
however lies much too far south.

Nasika has preserved its name unaltered to
the present day, distant 116 miles N. E. from
Bombay. Its latitude is 20° N., but in Ptolemy
only 17°. It was one of the most sacred seats
of Brahmanism. It has alsoimportant Buddhistie
remains, being noted for a group of rock-temples.
The word nisiké means in Sanskrit ‘ nose.’

64. The parts farther inland are possessed
by the Poulindai Agriophagoi, and
beyond them are the Khatriaioi,to whom
belong these cities, lying some east and some
west of the Indus :—

Nigranigramma...... se... oe. 124° 28° 15’
ATLA HATA Loci casetaestcesares 122° 27° 20’
Soudasanna ....e..cee aiauales 123° 26° 50°

157

Syrnisika site eatecdae tae leet dered Bl? 26° 30’
Patistama ...........-sesseceees » 121° 25°
Tiss paring. wa utertveves season 123° 24° 20’

The ‘Poulindai Agriophagoi are
described as occupying the parts northward of
those just mentioned. Pulinda is a name
applied in Hindd works to a variety of aboriginal
races. Agriophagoi is a Greek epithet, and indi-
cates that the Pulinda was a tribe that subsisted on
raw flesh and roots or wild fruits. In Yule’s map
they are located to the N. E. of the Ran of Kachh,
lying between the Khatriaioi in the north and
Lariké in the south. Another tribe of this name
lived about the central parts of the Vindhyas.

Khatriaioi:—According to Greek writers
the people that held the territory comprised
between the Hydradtés (Ravi) and the Hyphasis
(Biyas) were the Kathaioi, whose capital was
Sangala. The Mahdbhdrata, and the Pali Bud.
dhist works speak of Sangala as the capital of
the Madras, a powerful people often called also
the Baihtkas. Lassen, in order to explain the
substitution of name, supposes that the mixture
of the Madras with the inferior castes had led
them to assume the name of Khattrias (Ksha-
triya, the warrior caste), in token of their
degradation, but this is by no means probable.
The name is still found spread over an
immense area in the N. W. of India, from
the Hindd-kéh as far as Bengal, and from
Népail to Gujarat, under forms slightly variant,
Kathis, Kattis, Kathias, Kattris, Khatris, Khe-
tars, Kattaour, Kattair, Kattaks, and others.

158

One of these tribes, the Kathis, issuing from the
lower parts of the Panjab, established themselves
in Suradshtra, and gave thename of K&athidvad to
the great peninsula of Gujarat. (Etude, p. 104).

The six towns mentioned in section 64 can
none of them be identified.

65. But again, the country between Mount
Sardényx and Mount Béttigd belongs to the
Tabasoi,a great race, while the country
beyond them as far as the Vindhya range, along
the eastern bank of the Namados, belongs to
the Prapidtai, who includethe Rhamnai,
and whose towns are these :—

Kognabanda ...... Madeaiadane-wes 120° 15’ 23°
O70a bis" 25 ceuecoerce mene sees: 120° 380’ 23° 40’
Ostbir cessiaiucees sae weimanasaees 122° 30’ 23° 30’

Kosa, where are diamonds ..,121° 20’ 22° 30’
Tabasoi is not an ethnic name, but desig-
nates a community of religious ascetics, and
represents the Sanskrit Tiipasdés, from tapas
‘heat’ or ‘religious austerity.’ The haunts of
these devotees may be assigned to the valley of
the Tapti or Tapi (the Nanagouna of Ptolemy)
to the south of the more western portion of the
Vindhyas that produced the sardonyx.
Prapidtai:—Lassen locates this people, in-
eluding the subject race called the Rhamnai, in
the upper half of the Narmada valley. From the
circumstance that diamonds were found near
Kosa, one of their towns, he infers that their
territory extended as far asthe Upper Varada,
where diamond mines were known to have
existed. Kosa was probably situated in the

159

neighbourhood of Baital, north of the sources of
the T4pti and the Varada.

Rhamnai:—The name of this people is one
of the oldest in Indian ethnography. Their
early seat was in the land of the Oreitai and
Arabitai beyond the Indus, where they had a
capital called Rhambakia. As they were con-
nected by race with the Brahui, whose speech
must be considered as belonging to the Dekhan
group of languages, we have here, says Lassen
(Ind, Alt. vol. III, p. 174), a fresh proof confirm-
ing the view that before the arrival of the Aryans
all India, together with Gedrosia, was inhabited by
the tribes of the same widely diffused aboriginal
race, and that the Rhamnai, who had at one time
been settled in Gedrosia, had wandered thence
as far as the Vindhya mountains. Yule conjec-
tures that the Rhamnai may perhaps be associated
with Ramagiri, now Ramtek, a famous holy place
near Nagpir. The towns of the Prapiétai, four
in number, cannot with certainty be identified.

66. About the Nanagouna are the Phyl-
litai and the Béttigoi, including the
Kandaloi along the country of the Phyl-
litai and the river, and the Am bas tai along
the country of the Béttigoi and the mountain
range, and the following towns :—

67. Agara ......0, staan ds 129° 20’ 25°
Adeisathra ..........00. peeatiqeres 128° 30’ 24° 30’
Soara .. .eseeeeees Kates seins is 1242 20’ 24°
INV OC OR OTE nborde a tele. Souadiws 125° yt

PTVOED sale a htas atest taecuetSas 122°.30" .22° 207

160

The Phyllitai occupied the banks of
the Tapti lower down than the Rhamnai, and
extended northward to the Satpura range.
Lassen considers their name as a transliteration
of Bhilla, with an appended Greek termination.
The Bhills are a well-known wild tribe spread to
this day not only on the Upper Narmada and
the parts of the Vindhya chain adjoining, but
wider still towards the south and west. In
Ptolemy’s time their seats appear to have been
further to the east than at present. Yule thinks it
not impossible that the Phyllitai and the Drilo-
phyllitai may represent the Pulinda, a name
which, as has already been stated, is given in
Hindi works to a variety of aboriginal races.
According to Caldwell (Drav. Gram., p. 464) the
name Bhilla (vil, bil) means ‘a bow.’

Béttigoi is the correct reading, and if the
name denotes, as it is natural to suppose, the
people living near Mount Béttigé, then Ptolemy
has altogether displaced them, for their real
seats were in the country between the Koim-
batur Gap and the southern extremity of the
Peninsula.

Kandaloi:—Lassensuspectsthat the reading
here should be-Gondaloi, as the Gonds (who are
nearly identical with the Khands) are an ancient
race that belonged to the parts here indicated.
Yule, however, points out that Kuntaladésa and
the Kantalas appear frequently in lists and in
inscriptions. The country was that, he adds, of
which Kalyan was in after days the capital
(Elliot, Jowr. RB. As. S. vol. IV, p. 3).

Ambastai:—These represent the Ambashtha

16]

of Sanskrit, a people mentioned in the Epics,
where it is said that they fought with the club for
a weapon. In the Laws of Manu the name is
applied to one of the mixed castes which practised
the healing art. A people called Ambautai are
mentioned by our author as settled in the east of
the country of the Paropanisadai. Lassen thinks
these may have been connected in some way with
the Ambastai. Theirlocality is quite uncertain.
In Yule’s map they are placed doubtfully to the
south of the sources of the Mahanadi of Orissa.

Of the four towns, Agara, Soara, Nygdosora
and Anara, in section 67, nothing is known.

Adeisathra:—It would appear that there
were two places in Ancient India which bore the
name of Ahichhattra, the one called by Ptolemy
Adisdara (for Adisadra), and the other as here,
Adeisathra. Adisdara,as has been already shown,
was a city of Rohilkhand. Adeisathra, on the
other hand, lay near to the centre of India. Yule
quotes authorities which seem to place it, he says,
near the Vindhyas or the Narmada. He refers
also to an inscription which mentions it as on
the Sindhu River, which he takes to be either
the Kali-sindh of MaAlw4, or the Little Kali-
sindh further west, which seems to he the Sindhu
of the Méghadita. Ptolemy, singularly enough,
disjoims Adeisathra from the territory of the
Adeisathroi, where we would naturally expect him
to place it. Probably, as Yule remarks, he took
the name of the people from some Pauranik
ethnic list and the name of the city from a
traveller's route, and thus failed to make them fall
into proper relation to each other.

21 6G

162

68. Between Mount Béttigé and Adei-
sathros are the Sérai nomads, with these
towns :—

Sangamarta ........scecsesereeed dD” Zi
Sora, the capital of Arkatos 130° 21°

69. Again to the east of the Vindhya
range is the territory of the (Biolingai or)
B olingai, with these towns :—
Stagabaza or Bastagaza ...... 133° 28° 30’
Bardadtis .............06 ee 137° 30° 28° 30’

Sora designates the northern portion of
the Tamil country. The name in Sanskrit is
Chola, in Telugu Chola, but in Tamil Sora
or Chora. Sora is ealled the capital of Ar-
katos. This must be an error, for there can be
little doubt that Arkatos was not the name of a
prince, but of a city, the Ark4d of the present day.
This is so suitably situated, Caldwell remarks, as
to suggest at once this identification, apart even
from the close agreement as far as the sound is
concerned. The name is properly Ar-k4d, and
means ‘ the six forests. The Hindis of the place
regard it as an ancient city, although it is not
mentioned by name in the Purdnas (Drav. Gram.,
Introd. pp. 95, 96). There is a tradition that the
inhabitants of that part of the country between
Madras and the Gh&ts including Arkéd as its
centre were Kurumbars, or wandering shepherds,
for several centuries after the Christian era.
Cunningham takes Arkatos to be the name of
a prince, and inclines to identify Sora with
Zora or Jora (the Jorampur of the maps) an
old town lying immediately under the walls of

163

Karnul. The Sdrai he takes to be the Suari
(Geog. p. 547).

Biolingai or Bélingai:—Ptolemy has
transplanted this people from their proper seats,
which lay where the Aravali range slopes west-
ward towards the Indus, and placed them to the
east of the Vindhyas. He has left us however
the means of correcting his error, for he makes
them next neighbours to the Pérvaroi, whose
position can be fixed with some certainty. Pliny
(lib. VI, ec. xx} mentions the Bolingae and locates
them properly. According to Panini, Bhaulingi
was the seat of one of the branches of the great
tribe of the Salvas or Salvas.

Stagabaza:—Yule conjectures this may be
Bhéjapir, which he says was a site of extreme
antiquity, on the upper stream of the Bétwa, where
are remains of vast hydraulic works ascribed to
a king Bhoja (J. A. S. Beng. vol. XVI, p. 740).
To account for the first part of the name staga he
suggests the query: Tataka-Bhdja, the ‘tank’ or
‘lake’ of Bhoja P

Bardadotis:—This may be taken to represent
the Sanskrit Bhadravati, a name, says Yule, famed
in the Epic legends, and claimed by many cities.
Cunningham, he adds, is disposed to identify it
with the remarkable remains (pre-Ptolemaic)
discovered at Bharaod, west of Réwa.

70. Beyond these is the country of the
P O6rouaroi with these towns :—
Bridama <ccsaceciweleseceeossa 134° 30’ 27° 30’
Tholoubana ............. balers 136° 20’ 27°
Malaita o ccckeelveccdacedlsigeaete 136° 30’ 25° 50’

164

71. Beyond these as far as the Ouxentos
range are the Adeisathroi with these
towns :—

Malo Diainssveccgveas ei cehewiaaaens 140° 27° 20°
Aspathis......... i entannminwdusen 138° 30’ 25° 20’
Pamassa ......-.-s0000 ite cerl anes 137° 40’ 24° 30’
Sagéda, the Metropolis ......133° 23° 30’
Balantipyrgon ..........eeeeeeee 136° 30’ 28° 30’

Porouaroi (Poérvaroi):—This is the fa-
mous race of the Pauravas, which after the
time of Alexander was all predominant in Rajas-
thina under the name of the Pramiaras. The
race figures conspicuously both in the legendary
and real history of the North of India. It is
mentioned in the hymns of the Veda, and fre-
quently in the Mahdbhdrata, where the first kings
of the Lunar race are represented as being
Pauravas that reigned over the realms included
between the Upper Ganges and the Yamuna. The
later legends are silent concerning them, but
they appear again in real history and with fresh
distinction, for the gallant Péros, who so intre-
pidly contended against Alexander on the banks
of the Hydaspés, was the chief of a branch of
the Paurava whose dominions lay to the west
of that river, and that other Poros who went on
an embassy to Augustus and boasted himself to
be the lord paramount of 600 vassal kings was also
of the same exalted lineage. Even at the present
day some of the noblest houses reigning in
different parts of Rajasthan claim to be descended
from the Pauravas, while the songs of the national
bards still extol the vanished grandeur and the

165

power and glory of this ancient race. Saint-Martin
locates the Porouaroi of the text in the west of
Upper India, m the very heart of the Raéjpat
country, though the table would lead us to place
them much farther to the east. In the position
indicated the name even of the Pérouaroi is
found almost without alteration in the Purvar
of the inscriptions, in the Poravars of the Jain
clans, as much as in the designation spread every-
where of Povars and of Poudars, forms variously
altered, but still closely approaching the classic
Paurava (Etude, pp. 357 saa.)

The names of the three towns assigned to
the Poérvaroi,—Bridama, Tholoubana and
Malaita designate obscure localities, and their
position can but be conjectured. Saint-Martin
suggests that the first may be Dildana, the second
Doblana, and the third Plaita, all being places in
Rajputana. Yule, however, for Bridama proposes
Bardawad, a place in a straight line from Indér
to Nimach, and for Malaita,—Maltaun; this
place is in the British territory of Sagar and
Narmada, on the south declivity of the Naral Pass.

A deisathroi:—lIt has already been pointed
out that as Ptolemy has assigned the sources of
the Khabéris (the Kavéri) to his Mount Adeisa-
thros, we must identify that range with the section
of the Western Ghats which extends immediately
northward from the Koimbatur Gap. He places
Adeisathros however in the central parts of India,
and here accordingly we must look for the cities
of the eponymous people. Five are mentioned,
but Sagéda only, which was the metropolis,
can be identified with some certainty. The name

166

represents the Sékéta of Sanskrit. Sdkéta was
another name for Ayddhy4 on the Sarayf, a
city of vast extent and famous as the capital of
the kings of the Solar race and as the residence
for some years of Sékyamuni, the founder of
Buddhism. The Sagéda of our text was however
a different city, identified by Dr. F. Hall with
Téwar, near Jabalpdr, the capital of the Chédi,
a people of Bandélakhand renowned in Epic
poetry. Cunningham thinks it highly probable
that the old form of the name of this people was
Changédi and may be preserved in the Sagéda of
Ptolemy and in the Chi-ki-tho of Hiuen Tsiang in
Central India, near the Narmada. He says :—
“The identification which I have proposed
of Ptolemy’s Sagéda Metropolis with Chédi
appears to me to be almost certain. In the
first place, Sagéda is the capital of the Adeisa-
throi which I take to be a Greek rendering
of Hayakshétra or the country of the Hayas or
Haihayas. It adjoins the country of the Béttigoi,
whom I would identify with the people of Vaka-
tuka, whose capital was Bhandak. One of the
towns in their country, situated near the upper
course of the Son, is named Balantipyrgon, or
Balampyrgon. This I take to be the famous Fort
of Bandogarh, which we know formed part of the
Chédi dominions. To the north-east was Panassa,
which most probably preserves the name of some
town on the Parndsd4 or Bands River, a tributary
which joins the Sén to the north-east of Bando-
garh. To the north of the Adeisathroi, Ptolemy
places the Pérouaroi or Parihars, in their towns
named Tholoubana, Bridama, and Malaita. The

167

first I would identify with Boriban (Bahuriband)
by reading Ooloubana or Voloubana. The second
must be Bilhari; and the last may be Lameta,
which gives its name tothe Ghat on the Narmada,
opposite Téwar, and may thus stand for Tripura
itself. All these identifications hold so well to-
gether, and mutually support each other, that 1
have little doubt of their correctness.” Archeolog.
Surv. of Ind. vol. IX, pp. 55—57.

Panassa:—This in Yule’s map is doubtfully
placed at Panna, a decaying town in Bandelakhand
with diamond mines in the neighbourbood. In
the same map Baland is suggested as the re-
presentative of Balantipyrgon.

72. Farther east than the Adeisathroitowards
the Ganges are the Mand alai withthiscity :—

AStHhAGOUTA - sexi snrecohasesteads 142° | 295°
73. And on the river itself these towns :—
Sambalaka............. ehiieawostes 141° 29° 30’
Digalla: wvciasrcevedeseeatinss 142° 28°
Palimbothra, the Royal resi-
CONC Opn cse ta G code msttovedsess 143° 27°
Tamnalites., sutcipecetinaepentoasn 144° 30’ 26° 30’

Oreophanta ..........cceeeeeeee. 146° 30’ 24° 30’
74, In like manner the parts under Mount
Béttigé are occupied by the Brakhmanai
Mago1ias far as the Batai with this city :—
Brakhmeociidiacingtesesei eves 128° 19°
75. The parts under the range of Adeisa-
thros as far as the Arouraioi are occupied by

the Badiamaioi with this city :—
De thial be acowsetavastecieese Seema 134° 18° 50°

168

76. The parts under the Ouxentos range
are occupied by the Drilophyllitai, with

these cities :—

STUPIOM:- ig cities a aceeybeceamenloo™ 99° 20)’
WPOUOUTAr | ponsemsenprodseande. 137° 30’ 21° 40’
OZOANE.: isso tieeiacacdceevewuieeans 138° 15’ 20° 30’

Mandalai:—tThe territory of the Mandalai
lay in that upland region where the Son and
the Narmada have their sources. Here a town
situated on the latter river still bears the name
Mandala. It is about 50 miles distant from
Jabalpdr to the south-east, and is of some historic
note. Ptolemy has, however, assigned to the
Mandalai dominions far beyond their proper
limits, for to judge from the towns which
he gives them they must have occupied all the
right bank of the Ganges from its confluence
with the Jamnaé downwards to the Bay of Bengul.
But that this is improbable may be inferred from
the fact that Palimbothra (Patna) which the
table makes to be one of their cities, did not
belong to them, but was the capital of Prasiaké,
which, as has already been remarked, is pushed
far too high up theriver. Tamalités, moreover,
which has been satisfactorily identified with
Tamluk, a river port about 35 miles S. W.
from Calcutta possessed, according to Wilford,
a large territory of its own. The table also
places it only half a degree more to the south-
ward than Palimbothra, while in reality it is more
than 3 or 4 deg. Cunningham inclines to identify
with the Mandalai the Mundas of Chutia Nagpur,
whose language and country, he says, are called

169

Mundala, and also with the Malli of Pliny (lib.
VI. c. xxi.)—Anc. Geog. of Ind., pp. 508, 509.

Sambalaka:—A city of the same name
attributed to Prasiaké (sec. 53) has been already
identified with Sambhal in Rohilkhand. The
Sambalaka of the Mandalai may perhaps be
Sambhalpur on the Upper Mahdnadi, the capital
of a district which produces the finest diamonds
in the world.

Sigalla:—This name has a suspicious like-
ness to Sagala, the name of the city to the west
of Lahor, which was besieged and taken by
Alexander, and which Ptolemy has erroneously
placed in Prasiaké (sec. 53).

Palimbothra:—The more usual form of
the name is Palibothra, a transcription of
Paliputra, the spoken form of Pataliputra, the
ancient capital of Magadha, and a name still
frequently applied to the city of Patnd which
is its modern representative. In the times of
Chandragupta (the Sandrokottos of the Greeks)
and the kings of his dynasty, Palibothra was the
capital of a great empire which extended from
the mouths of the Ganges to the regions beyond
the Indus. Remains of the wooden wall by
which the city, as we learn from Strabo, was
defended, were discovered a few years ago in
Patna (by workmen engaged in digging a tank)
at a depth of from 12 to 15 feet below the sur-
face of the ground. Palimbothra, as we have
noticed, did not belong to the Mandalai but to
the Prasioi.

Tamalités represents the Sanskrit Tamra-
hpti, the modern Tamluk, a town lying in a low

22 G

170

and damp situation on a broad reach or bay of the
Rapnaréyan River, 12 miles above its junction
with the Hughli mouth of the Ganges. The Pali
form of the name was Témalitti, and this accounts
for the form in Greek. Pliny mentions a people
called Taluctae belonging to this part of India, and
the similarity of the name leaves little doubt of
their identity with the people whose capital was
Tamluk. This place, in ancient times, was the great
emporium of the trade between the Ganges and
Ceylon. We have already pointed out how wide
Ptolemy was of the mark in fixing its situation
relatively to Palimbothra.

Brakhmanai Magoi:—Mr. J.Campbell has
suggested to me that by Brakhmanai Magoi
may be meant ‘sons of the Brahmans,’ that is,
Canarese Brahmans, whose forefathers married
women of the country, the word magoi represent-
ing the Canarese maga, ‘a son.’ The term, he
says, is still in common use, added to the name of
castes, as Haiga-Makalu (makalu—plural of maga)
i.e. Haiga Briéhmans. Lassen supposed that
Ptolemy, by adding Magoi to the name of these
Brahmans, meant to imply either that they were
a colony of Persian priests settled in India, or that
they were Brahmans who had adopted the tenets
of the Magi, and expresses his surprise that
Ptolemy should have been led into making such
an unwarrantable supposition. The country oc-
cupied by these Brahmans was about the upper
Kavéri, and extended from Mount Beéttigd east-
ward as far as the Batai.

Brakhmé:—* Can this,” asks Caldwell, “be
Brahmadésam, an ancient town on the Tamra-

171

parni, not far from the foot of the Podigei Mount
(Mt. Béttigd) which I have found referred to in
several ancient inscriptions ?”

Badiamaioi:—There is in the district of
Belgaum a town and hill-fort on the route from
Kaladgi to Balari, not far from the Malprabha,
a tributary of the Krishna, called Badimi, and
here we may locatethe Badiamaici. Tathilba,
their capital, cannot be recognized.

Drilophyllitai:—These are placed by
Ptolemy at the foot of the Ouxentos, and probably
had their seats to the south-west of that range.
Their name indicates them to have been a branch
of the Phyllitai, the Bhills, or perhaps Pulindas.
Lassen would explain the first part of their name
from the Sanskrit dridha (strong) by the change
of the dh into the liquid. Ozoana, one of their
three towns is, perhaps, Seoni, a place about 60
miles N. E. from Nagpur.

77. Further east than these towards the
Ganges are the Kokkonagaji with this
city :—

Dosara .......0 Scyanuineeaonnlacd 142° 30’ 22° 30’

78. And on the river farther west :—
Kartinaga ......ccccecceecessoree L46° 23°
Kartasina ........sccceerseeees es L469 21° 40’

79. Under the Maisdloi the Salakénoi
towards the Oroudian (or Arouraian) Moun-
tains with these cities :—

Bena gourOn ..cceccvvisieccsirevden 140° 20° 15”
ISaSUPAc . dshagouwnnetedesin palegachea 138° 19° 30°

Magaris ......cccesceee eceaeteeees 137° 80’ 18° 20°

172

80. Towards the Ganges River the Saba-
rai, in whose country the diamond is found in
great abundance, their towns are :—

MASOPION: Hoconitecacceanisannc 140° 30’ 22°
Karikardama...............0000+ 141° 20° 15’

81. All the country about the mouths of
the Ganges is occupied by the Gangaridai
with this city :—

Gangé, the Royal residence...146° 19° 15/

Kokkonagai:—Lassen locates this tribe in
Chutia Nagpur, identifying Désara with Doesa in
the hill country, between the upper courses of the
Vaitarant and Suvarnarékha. He explains their
name to mean the people of the mountains where
the kéka grows,—kéka being the name of a kind
of palm-tree. Yule suggests that the name may
represent the Sanskrit Kakamukha, which means
‘crow-faced,’ and was the name of a mythical
race. He places them on the Upper Mahanadi
and farther west than Lassen. The table gives
them two towns near the Ganges.

Kartinagaand Kartasina:—The former,
Yule thinks, may be Karnagarh near Bhiagal-
pur, perhaps an ancient site, regarding which he
refers to the Jour. R. As. Soc. vol. XVIII,
p-. 395; Kartasina he takes to be Karnasénagarh,
another ancient site near Berhampur (J. R. A. S.
N. §., vol. VI, p. 248 and J. As. S. Beng.,
vol. XXII, p. 281).

Salakénoi:—This people may be located to
the west of the Godavari, inland on the north-
western bordersof Maisdlia. Their name, Lassen

173

thought (dnd. Alt., vol. III, p. 176) might be
connected with the Sanskrit word Sdla, the Sal
tree. Yule suggests that it may represent the
Sanskrit Saurikirna. None of their towns can
be recognized.

Sabarai:—The Sabarai of Ptolemy Cun-
ningham takes to be the Suari of Pliny, and he
would identify both with the aboriginal Savaras
er Suars, a wild race who live im the woods
and jungles without any fixed habitations, and
whose country extended as far southward as
the Pennér River. These Savaras or Suars are
only a single branch of a widely spread race
found in large numbers to the 8. W. of Gwalior
and Narwar and S. Rajputana, where they are
known as Surrius. Yule places them farther
north in Désaréné, towards the territory of
Sambhalpur, which, as we have already remarked,
produced the finest diamonds in the world. Their
towns have not been identified.

Gangaridai:—This great people occupied
all the country about the mouths of the Ganges.
Their capital was Gang é, described in the Periplis
as an important seat of commerce on the Ganges.
They are mentioned by Virgil (Georg. III, 1. 27),
by Valerius Flaccus (Argon. lib. VI, 1. 66), and by
Curtius (lib. IX, c. 11) who places them along with
the Pharrasii (Prasii) on the eastern bank of the
Ganges. They are called by Pliny (lib. VI, c. lxv)
the Gangaridae Calingae, and placed by him at the
furthest extremity of the Ganges region, as is
indicated by the expression gens novissima, which
he applies to them. They must have been a
powerful people, to judge from the military force

174

which Pliny reports them to have maintained,
and their territory could scarcely have been
restricted to the marshy jungles at the mouth of
the river now known as the Sundarbans, but
must have comprised a considerable portion of
the province of Bengal. This is the view taken
by Saint-Martin. Bengal; he says, represents, at
least in a general way, the country of the Ganga-
ridae, and the city which Pliny speaks of as their
capital, Parthalis can only be Vardhana, a place
which flourished in ancient times, and is now
known as Bardhwan. The name of the Gangari-
dai has nothing in Sanskrit to correspond with it,
nor can it be a word, as Lassen supposed, of purely
Greek formation, for the people were mentioned
under this name to Alexander by one of the prin-
ces in the North-west of India. The synonymous
term which Sanskrit fails to supply is found among
the aboriginal tribes belonging to the region
occupied by the Gangaridai, the name being pre-
served almost identically in that of the Gonghris
of S. Bahar, with whom were connected the
Gangayis of North-western, and the Gangrar of
Eastern Bengal, these designations beimg but
variations of the name which was originally
common to them all.

Gang é:—Various sites have been proposed for
Gangé. Heeren placed it near Duliapur, a village
about 40 miles S. BE. of Calcutta on a branch
of the Isamati River; Wilford at the confluence
of the Ganges and Brahmaputra, where, he says,
there was a town called in Sanskrit Hastimalla,
and jin the spoken dialect Hathimalla, from
elephants being picquetted there; Murray at

175

Chittagong; Taylor on the site of the ancient
Hindu Capital of Banga (Bengal) which lies in
the neighbourhood of Sonargéon (Suvarnagriama),
a place 12 miles to the S. E. of Dhakka;
Cunningham at Jésor; and others further west,
near Calcutta, or about 30 miles higher up
the Hughli, somewhere near Chinsura. Another
Gangé is mentioned by Artemidoros above or
to the N. W. of Palibothra, and this Wilford
identifies with Prayag, 7.e., Allahabad, but Gros-
kurd with Anupshahr.

Ptolemy now leaves the Gangetic regions and
describes the inland parts of the territories along
the Western Coast of the Peninsula.

82. Inthe partsofAriaké which still re-
main to be described are the following inland
cities and villages: to the west of the Bénda
these cities :—

Malippala ...cocccccsscserecseveseL19° 30’ 20° 15’
SArISADIS « varcesecccecesi ess covens 119° 30’ 20°
VAGOTt: cxtwevseintevmacvecssee le 19° 20’
Baithana (the royal seat of [Siro]

Ptolemaios or Polemaios)...117° 18° 30’
Deopali or Deopala ............ 115° 40’ 17° 50’
Gamaliba ...... Sn lcamunacuetae 115° 15’ 17° 20°
Oménogara ........ sce esecseeees 114° 16° 20”

83. Between the Bénda and Pseudostomos :
Nagarouris (or Nagarouraris)120° 20° 15’
Ta Da80 <2esssesecsieseas setevseese-L2l? 30’ 20° 40°
Tie ihe pause ax beneete den erousles 123° 20° 457

Tiripangalida,,........... Saeed 121° 15’ 19° 40°

176

Hippokoura, the royal seat of

Baleokouros .......c.-...008 .-119° 45’ 19° 10"
MOUDOULLOMD: «45 3ssiaiescedadt 120° 15’ 19°10’
DITMMAIACE, div sin iececadweoaeyencss 119° 20’ 18° 30’
Kalligeris ....... eaeaenwetens scree 13° 18°
Modogoulle: -cccnsvicss voweweserses 119° 18°
Petirgala oo... cee ceee eee eeeacces 117° 45’ 17° 15’
Banaouasel............cececncoeres 116° 16° 45’

Seven citiesare enumerated in Ariak 6é, as lying
to the west of the Bénda, and regarding four of
these, Malippala, Sarisabis, Gamaliba
and Oménogara, nothing is known. The
Periplis (sec. 51) notices Tagara and Baitha-
na in a passage which may be quoted: “In
Dakhinabades itself there are two very im-
portant seats of commerce, Paithana towards
the south of Barygaza, from which it is distant a
twenty days’ journey, and eastward from this about
a ten days’ journey is another very large city,
Tagara. From these marts goods are transported
on waggons to Barygaza through difficult regions
that have no road worth calling such. From Pai-
thana great quantities of onyx-stones and from
Tagara large supplies of common cotton-cloth,
muslins of all kinds, mallow-tinted cottons and
various other articles of local production im-
ported into it from the maritime districts.”

Baithana is the Paithana of the above
extract, and the Paithan of the present day, a town
of Haidarabad, or the territory of the Nizam, on
the left bank of the river Gédavari, in latitude
19° 29’ or about a degree further north than it is
placed by Ptolemy. Paithana is the Prakrit form

177

of the Sanskrit Pratishthana, the name of
the capital of Sdlivihana. Ptolemy calls it the
capital of Siroptolemaios or Sirepolemaios, a name
which represents the Sanskrit Sri-Pulémavit,
the Pulumiayi of the Nasik Cave and Amaravati
Stapa Inscriptions, a king of the great Andhra
dynasty.

Tagara:—The name is found in inscriptions
under the form Tagarapura (J. R. A. 8. vol. IV, p.
34). Ptolemy places it to thenorth-east of Baithana
and the Periplis, as we see from the extract, to the
east of it at the distance of a ten days’ journey.
Wilford, Vincent, Mannert, Ritter and others take
it to be Dévagadh, now Daulatabad, which was the
seat of a sovereign even in 1293, and is situated not
farfrom Elura, so famous for its excavated temples.
But if Baithana be Paithan, Tagara cannot be
Dévagadh, unless the distance is wrongly given.
There is, moreover, nothing to show that Déva-
gadh was connected with the Tagarapura of the
inscriptions. Pandit Bhagvanlal identified Tagara
with Junnar, a place of considerable importance,
situated to the north of Pandé. He pointed out
that the Sanskrit name of Tagara was Trigiri
a compound meaning ‘three hills,’ and that as
Junnar stood on a high site between three hills
this identification was probably correct. Junnar
however lies to the westward of Paithan. Yule
places Tagara at Kulburga, which lies to the south-
east of Paithan, at a distance of about 150 miles,
which would fairly represent a ten days’ journey,
the distance given in the Periplis. Grant Duff
would identify it with a place near Bhifr on the
Godavari, and Flect with Kolhapur. The Silahara

23a

178

princes or chiefs who formed three distinct

branches of a dynasty that ruled over two parts

of the Konkan and the country about Kolhapur
style themselves, ‘The Lords of the excellent city
of Tagara.’ If, says Prof. Bhandarkar, the name of

Tagara has undergone corruption, it would take the
form, according to the laws of Prakrit speech, of
Tarur or Térur, and he therefore asks ‘can it be
the modern Darur or Dharur in the Nizam’s
dominions, 25 miles east of Grant Duff's Bhir, and
7OmilesS. K.of Paithan ?’ (see Muller’s Geog. Grec.

Minor. vol. I, p. 294, n.; Elphinstone’s History
of India, p. 223; Eurgess, Arch. Surv. W. Ind.
vol. III, p. 54; and Bembay Gazetteer, vol. XIII,
pt u, p. 423, n.). Mr. Campbell is of opinion that
the maritime districts from which local products
were brought to Tagara and thence exported to
Barygaza, lay on the coast of Bengal, and not on
the Konkan coast, from which there was easy
transit by sea to the great northern emporium in
the Gulf of Khambat, while the transit by land

through Tagara could not be accomplished

without encountering the most formidable

obstacles.

Deopali:—This name means ‘the city of
God,’ and Deopali may therefore perhaps be
Dévagadh, the two names having the same
meaning.

Tabas6:—This would seem to be a city of the
Tabasoi, already mentioned as a large community,
of Brahman ascetics.

Hippokoura:—A town of this name has
already been mentioned as a seaport to the south
of Simylla. This Hippokoura lay inland, and was

179

the capital of the southern parts of Ariakés,
as Paithana was the capital of the northern, Its
position is uncertain. Yule places it doubtfully
at Kalyan, a place about half a degree to the
west of Bidar, and at some distance south from
the river Mafijira. Ptolemy calls it the capital
of Baleokouros. Bhandarkar conjectures this to
have been the Vilivayakura, a name found upon
two other Andhra coins discovered at Kolhapur,
There is no other clue to its identification, but
see Lassen, Ind. Alt. vol. III, pp. 179, 185.
Sirimalaga may perhaps be Malkhéd, a
town in Haidarabid, situated on a tributary of
the Bhima, in lat. 17° 8’ and long. 77° 12’. The
first part of the word Siri probably represents the
Sanskrit honorific prefix éré. .
Kalligeris:—Perhaps Kanhagiri, a place
about 3 a degree to the south of Madgal.
Modogoulla:—There can be little doubt
that this is Mddgal, a town in the Haidarébéd
districts,—lat. 16° 2’, long. 76° 26’—N. W.
from Baliari. Petirgala cannot be identified.
Banaouasei:—This place is mentioned in
the Mahdvanso, in the Pali form Wanawisi,
by which a city or district is designated. Bana-
ouasei must beyond doubt have been the capital
of this country, and is identical with the modern
Banavasi,situated on the upper Varada, a tributary
of the Tungabhadra. Saint-Martin thinks that it
was the city visited by Hiuen Tsiang, and called
by him Kon-kin-na-pu-lo, ie¢., MNonkanapura;
Cunningham is of opinion that both the bearing
and the distance point to Anagundi, but Dr.
Burgess suggests Kokandr for Kon-kin-na-pu-lo.

180

f 84. The inland cities of the Pirates are

these :—

Olokhoira ......... 00. este

Mousopallé, the metropolis ...115° 30’

85.

15°
15° 45°

Inland cities of Limyriké, to the
west of the Pseudostomos are these :—

Naroulla....ccccccrccessereosssevestl 7” 40’ 15° 50/
ROU Dassen rere cesta rereasaes 117° 15°
Paloura ....... Lope auieue rane 117° ‘51 14° 40°

86. Between the Pseudostomos and the

Baris, these cities :—

Pasageé ....+... Maanwaness ner aeeats 324° 50’ 19° 50’
Mastaniout- sxisiaicaacescacvetse 121° 30’ 18° 40”
Kourellour spicccsccccccesceces: 139° 17° 30’
Pounnata, where is beryl .,. 121° 20’ 17° 30’
Alo€é .....00 poche aw ea ecerudeeeee 120°: 20017°
Karoura, the royal seat of

Kérobothros ...ccccesseeeeeees 119° 16° 20’
Avembour.......cscoees asta ees 121° 16° 207
Bideris: 3 oxcss sicucecctsdeae crests 119° 15° 507
Pantipolissccvevievcencscceieeces 118° 15° 20’
ACAPTIMND eves vekdeveros dees’ we.ee LL9° 30’ 5° 407
KOreours sicsecuviawiawes vracses $20° 15°

87. Inland town of the Aioi:—
MOLOUMOS accosted edvcasasssencts 321° 20° 14° 20°

The dominion of the sea appears to have sa-
tisfied the ambitionof the pirates, as they possessed
on shore only a narrow strip of territory enclosed
between the line of coast and the western declivi-
ties of the Ghats. Their capital, Mousopallé,
Yule places at Miraj,a town near the Krishna,
put doubtf{uly. Their other town, Olokhoirg,

181

is probably Khéda, a town in the district of
Ratnagiri in lat. 17° 44’ long. 73° 30’. As
Khéda is the name of several other places in this
part of the country, Olo, whatever it may mean,
may have been in old times prefixed to this
particular Khéda for the sake of distinetion.

Kouba:—This is generally taken to be
Goa or Gova, the capital of the Portuguese
possessions in India, and there can be little doubt
of the correctness of the identification. The two
towns Naroullaand Paloura, which Ptolemy
places with Kouba to the west of the Pseudos-
tomos, cannot be identified. To judge from his
figures of longitude, Paloura lay 15’ farther east
than Kouba, but as he makes the coast run east-
ward instead of southward, it must be considered
to have lain south of Kouba. The name is Tamil,
and means, according to Caldwell (Introd. p. 104)
‘Milk town.’ It is remarkable, he observes, how
many names of places in Southern India mention-
ed by Ptolemy end in odp or ovpa=‘a town.’ There
are 23 such places in all.

Pasagé:—According to Yule’s map this repre-
sents Palsagi, the old name of a place now
called Halsi, south-east of Goa, from which it is
distant somewhat under a degree.

Mastanour and Kourellour cannot be
identified.

Pounnata has not yet been identified,
though Ptolemy gives a sort of clue in stating that
it produced the beryl. Yule places it in his map
near Seringapatam. (See Ind. Ant. vol. XII, p. 18).

A1loé:—This may be Yellapur, a small town in
North Canara, in lat. 14° 56’ long. 74° 43’.

182

Karoura:— Karoura,” says Caldwell, “is
mentioned in Tamil traditions as the ancient
capital of the Chéra, Kéra, or Kérala kings, and is
generally identified with Kardr, an important town
in the Koimbatur district, originally included in
the Chéra kingdom. It is situated on the left
bank of the river Amaravati, a tributary of
the Kavéri, near a large fort now in ruins.
Ptolemy notes that Karoura was the capital of
Kérobothros,7.e., Kéralaputra(Cherapati?) Kardra
means ‘the black town,’ and I consider it identi-
cal with Kéragam, and Kadaram, names of places
which I have frequently found in the Tamil
country, and which are evidently the poetical
equivalents of Kardr. The meaning of each of
the names is the same. Ptolemy’s word Karoura
represents the Tamil name of the place with
perfect accuracy.” (Introd. pp. 96, 97).

Arembour:—Dassen compares this name
with Oorumparum, but the situation of the place so
called (lat. 11° 12’ long. 76° 16’) does not suit well
the position of Arembour as given by Ptolemy.

Bideris:—Perhaps Erod or Yirodu in the
district of Koimbatur (lat. 11° 20’ long. 77° 46’)
near the Kavéri.

Pantipolis, according to Yule, represents
the obsolete name Pantiyapura, which he places
at Hangal, in the Dharwad district.

Morounda:—This is the only inland city of
the Aioi named by Ptolemy. It has not been
identified.

The concluding tables enumerate the inland
towns belonging to the districts lying along the
Eastern Coast of the Peninsula.

183

88. Inland cities of the Kareoi:—

Mendéla ...............000e cngd lo 17° 40°
S6lour .....cceccseces coccessceeee 121° 45% 16° 30
TP ULOWR: fratecccdetes en ea gnuanetes 122° 15° 207
Mantittour .........6... ee 123° 15° 10°

89. Inland cities of the Pandionoi:—
Tainour ........ 0. ageivahiaae .- 124° 45’ 18° 40’
Perihgkarei ............00: ee 123° 20’ 18°
Korindiour .. ...cecccseescseees 125" 17° 407
Tangala or Taga ..........6. 00. 123° 30’ 16° 50’
Modoura, the royal city of

Pandion ..cecceee datedicesen wee 16° 20’
Akour .......08 Sei ceweneae se 124° 45’ 15° 20°

90. Inland cities of the Bat oi :—
Ka lind O18 ccianeiwccadvceeecewccsts 127° 40’ 17° 30
Bitaisiiesccawedncs en re we. 126° 30’ 17°
Palarae -écevesteass b egenigunaaas 128° 16° 45/

Inland cities of the Kareoi:—none of the four
named in the table can be identified.

Peringkarei:—This town has preserved its
name almost without change, being now known as
Perungari, on the river Vaigai, about 40 miles
lower down its course than Madura. With regard
to this name, Caldwell remarks that if it had been
written Perungkarei it would have been perfectly
accurate Tamil, letter for letter. The meaning is
‘great shore,’ and perum ‘great’ becomes perung
before k, by rule. Ptolemy places a town called
Tainour at the distance of less than a degree to
the north-east of Peringkarei. The direction would
suit Tanjor, but the distance is more than a

184

degree. Ptolemy has however placed his Pering-
karei quite in a wrong position with regard to
Madura.

Vangalaor Taga:—There can be little doubt
that this is new represented by Dindugal, an im-
portant and flourishing town lying at a distance
of 32 miles north by west from Madura.

Modoura:—This is now called Madura or
Madurai—on the banks of the River Vaigai. It
was the second capital of the Southern Pandyas ;
we have already noticed it in the description of
the territory of this people.

Bata:—This may perhaps be Pattukétta, a
small town not very far inland from the northern
end of the Argolic Gulf (Palk’s Passage). The
other two towns of the Batoi cannot be recog-
nized. As Pudukdtta is the capital of the
Tondiman Raja, Lassen has suggested its identity
with Bata. It is upwards of 20 miles farther
inland than Pattukétta.

91. Inland cities .of the Paralia of the
Séorétai:—

IR AHOUR- stot our cn wonaavees 129° 17° 20’
Tennagora ...ceccecsees diodes 132° 17°
BKOUI a teaiseeenc ct tueaeee 129° 16° 407
Orthoura, the royal city of

Sornagos ......... Sean waee .... 180° ‘16° 20°
Bere, micies ses oeus cars seeaesaens 130° 20’ 16° 15’
POW “peeiie steers edecbives sew, dad” 16°
Kearmiat'® ees a eeicndsceansagen cee 130° 20’ 15° 40°

MAS OUT i. cpccsevescucesaeee: we. 130° 15° 15’

185

92. The inland cities of the Arvarnoi
nre these :—

Kerauge oc... .eseceeees peat 133° 16° 15’
PHrOUriON. cisssavsavecises: ends 15°
Katie coh einduexetecnsvacedaien 132° 40’ 15°
POlEOUT sie sucacetontzicencseee ww. 131° 30’ 14° 40’
Pikendaka .....+......- veseeee 131° 30! 14°
fatour ....... Nitinlemetaviees dg2°-d0" 14°
Skopolowra .....ss00-sseeeeere. 134° 15% 14° 35’
Dar talcccdinia eee seaosoaieevenias 133° 30’ 18° 40’
Malanga, the royal city of
BasaronagosS.........seesee eee 133° 18°

Kandipatna ....0..0..ssseeeerees 133° 30° 12° 20’
93. The inland cities of the Maiséloi:—
Kallitaig.ccwsjorsehiwnniccs 18" 17°

Bardamana ...... seueaeenesner 136° 15’ 15° 15’
Koroungkala .......0..ee.eee »- 135° 15°
Pharytra or Pharetra......... 134° 20° 18° 20’

Pityndra, the metropolis ... 135° 20’ 12° 30’

Orthoura:—Of the eight inland cities named
aus belonging to the maritime territory of the
Sérétai, only two—Abour and the capital, have
been identified. Abour is Ambfrdurg in N. Arkat,
lat. 12° 47’, long. 78° 42’. Regarding Orthoura
Cunningham says : “ Chola is noticed by Ptolemy,
whose Orthura regia Sornati must be Uridr, the
capital of Sorandtha, or the king of the Soringae,
that is the Soras, Chéoras or Cholas. Uraiyfr is a
few miles south-south-east of Tiruchhinapalli. The
Soringae are most probably the Syrieni of Pliny,
with their 300 cities, as they occupied the coast

246

186

between the Pandae and the Derangae or Dra-
vidians.”—Anc. Geog. of Ind., p. 551.

Phrourion:—tThis is a Greek word signify-
ing ‘a garrisoned fort,’ and may perhaps be
meant as a translation of an indigenous name
having that signification, as Durga, ‘a hill-fort,’
a common affix to names of places in the Penin-
sula.
Karigé:—This should no doubt be read
Karipé under which form it can be at once iden-
tified with Kadapa, a place lying 5 miles from the
right bank of the Northern Pennar on a small
tributary of that river.

Pikendaka:—Konda is a frequent termina-
tion in the names of towns in this part of India.
The letters of Pikendaka may have been trans-
posed in copying, and its proper form may have
been Pennakonda, the name of a town in the
district of Balari (lat. 14°5’ long. 77° 39’).

ITatour:—From Yule’s map it would appear
there is a place lying a degree westward from
Kadapa which still bears this name, Yétiar.

Malanga:—In our notice of Melangé it was
pointed out that Cunningham had fixed the
locality of Malanga near Elur, a place some
distance inland about half way between the Krish-
né and the Godavari towards their embouchures,
and in the neighbourhood of which are the re-
mains of an old capital named Vengi. With regard
to the king’s name Bassaronaga, he thinks that
this may be identified with the Pali Majérika-naga
of the Mahéwanso and thus Ptolemy’s Malanga
would become the capital of the Nagas of Majeri-
ka, Anc. Geo. of Ind., (pp. 589, 540). In Yule’s

187

map Malang, is placed conjecturally about two
degrees farther south at Velur, near the mouth
of the Pennar.

Of the five cities attributed to the Mais6loi,
only Koroungkala can be recognized. It
appears to be the place now known as Worankal,
the medieval capital of Telingana. It has but few
tokens remaining to attest its former grandeur.

Pityndra, the capital of Maisélia, was pro-
bably Dhanakataka now Dharanikota, about 20
miles above Béjwdda on the Krishna.

94. Islands lying near the part of India
which projects into the ocean in the Gulf of
Kanthi :—

Barak: ce:cssceese: savsiateieies 111° 18°

95. And along the line of coast as far as
the Kolkhic Gulf :—

Milizégyris (or Milizigéris).. 110° 12° 30°
Heptanésia ........-.sceeseeees 113° 13°
rt AC Lbs cc seevcetnenvets veeceee 113° 30° 11°
Peperiné .......... aieeuedaucuvises 115° 12° 40’
PVC SIA: | wesbaesninaeytatultuan saat 116° 20’ 12°
TeUke: goscatacuacsiancereeutewas 118° 12°
Nanigéris.......... ee .. 122° 12°
96. And in the Argaric Gulf :—
ERCOPY cvscinseslesdetesue ca aascumee’ 126° 30’—13°

Baraké :—This is the name given in the Peri-
plas to the Gulf of Kachh, called by our author
the Gulf of Kanthi, a name which to this day is
applied to the south coast of Kachh The Peri-
pits does not mention Baraké as an island, but
says that the Gulf had 7 islands. Regarding

188

Baraké, Dr. Burgess says: “ Yule places Baraké
at Jaggat or Dwaraké ; Lassen also identifies
it with Dwaraka, which he places on the coast
between Purbandar and MiyAnt, near Srinagar.
Mula-Dwaraka, the original site, was further
east than this, but is variously placed near
Madhupur, thirty-six miles north-west from
Somanaéth-Pattan, or three miles south-west
from Kodinar, and nineteen miles east of Sdma-
rath. This last spot is called Mula-Dwaraka
to this day. ” (Tértkh-i-Sérath, Tutrod. p. 7).

Milizégyris occurs in the Periplis as
Molizcipars, which may be identified with Jayagad
or Sidi-Jayagad, which would appear to be the
Sigerus of Pliny (hb. vi, c. 26).

Heptanésia (or group of 7 islands) pro-
bably corresponded to the Sesikrienai of the
Peripliés, which may be the Burnt Islands of the
present day, among which the Vingorla rocks are
conspicuous.

Trikadiba or ‘the island Trika,—diba being
the Sanskrit word dvipa, ‘an island.’

Peperiné:—This, to judge from the name,
should be an island somewhere off the coast of
Cottonara, the great pepper district, as stated by
Pliny (lib. VI, c. xxvi).

Trinésia (or group of 3 islands) :—Ptole-
my places it off the coast of Limyriké between
Tyndis and Mouziris, but nearer the former.

Leuké:—This is a Greek word meaning

‘white.’ The island is placed in the Periplés off
the coast where Limyriké peguis: and in Ptolemy
near where it ends.

Nanigéris:—To judge from Ptolemy’s

189

figures he has taken this to be an island lying
between Cape Kumari (Comorin) and Taprobané
(Ceylon).

Kory:—It has already been noticed that Kory
was both the name of the Island of Ramésvaram
and of the promontory in which it terminated.

Cap. 2.
Position of India beyond the Ganges.

1. India beyond the Ganges is bounded on
the west by the river Ganges; on the north
by the parts of Skythia and Sériké already
described, on the east by the Sinai along the
Meridian, which extends from the furthest
limits of Sériké to the Great Gulf, and also by
this gulf itself, on the south by the Indian
Ocean and part of the Green Sea which stretches
from the island of Menouthias in a line
parallel to the equator, as far as the regions
which lie opposite to the Great Gulf.

India beyond the Ganges comprised with Ptole-
my not only the great plain between that river
and the Himalayas, but also all south-eastern
Asia, as far as the country of the Sinai (China).
Concerning these vast regions Ptolemy is our
only ancient authority. Strabo’s knowledge of
the east was limited in this direction by the
Ganges, and the author of the Periplis, who was
a later and intermediate writer, though he was
aware that inhabited countries stretched far
beyond that limit even onwards to the eastern end
of the world, appears to have learned httle more

190

about them than the mere fact of their existence.
Ptolemy, on the other hand, supplies us with much
information regarding them. He traces the line
of coast as far as the Gulf of Siam (his Great Gulf)
enumerating the tribes, the trading marts, the
river mouths and the islands that would be passed
on the way. He has also a copious nomenclature
for the interior, which embraces its inhabitants,
its towns, its rivers, and its mountain ranges.
His conceptions were no doubt extremely confused
and erroneous, and his data, in many instances,
as inconsistent with each other as with the
reality. Still, his description contains important
elements of truth, and must have been based
upon authentic information. At the same time
an attentive study of his nomenclature and
the accompanying indications has led to the
satisfactory identification of a few of his towns,
and a more considerable number of the rivers and
mountains and tribes which he has specified.

His most notable error consisted in the supposi-
tion that the eastern parts of Asia were connected
by continuous land with the east coast of Africa,
so that, like Hipparkhos, he conceived the Indian
Ocean to resemble the Mediterranean in being
surrounded on all sides by land. He makes
accordingly the coast of the Sinai, beyond the
Gulf of Siam, turn toward the south instead of
curving up towards the north. Again he repre-
sents the Malay Peninsula(his Golden Khersonese)
which does not project so far as to reach the
equator, extend to 4 degrees southward from it,
and he mentions neither the Straits of Maiacca
nor the great island of Sumatra, unless indeed

191

his Iabadios be this island, and not Java, as is
generally supposed. By the Green Sea (IIpaowdns
6ddaooa) which formed a part of the southern
boundary is meant the southern part of the Indian
Ocean which stretched eastward from Cape
Prasum (Cape Delgado) the most southern point
on the east coast of Africa known to Ptolemy.
The island of Menouthias was either Zanzibar or
one of the islands adjacent to it. It is mentioned
by the author of the Periplis.

In his description of India beyond the Ganges
Ptolemy adheres to the method which he had
followed in his account of India within the Ganges.
He therefore begins with the coast, which he des-
cribes from the Eastern Mouth of the Ganges to the
Great Promontory where India becomes conter-
minous with the country of the Sinai. The moun-
tains follow, then the rivers, then the towns in the
interior, and last of all the islands.

2. The seacoast of this division is thus de-
scribed. In the Gangetic Gulf beyond the
Mouth of the Ganges called Antibolei:—

The coast of the Airrhadoi:—
Pentapolis ...........+. ete 150° 18°
Mouth of River Katabéda... 151° 20’ 17°
Barakoura, a mart ............ 152° 30’ 16°
Mouth of the River Toko-

SOND. nashces enters see doe? 14° 30’

Wilford, probably misled by a corrupt reading,
took the name of the Airrhadoi to be another
form of Antibole. He says (Asiat. Research.,
Vol. XIV, p. 444) ‘‘ Ptolemy says that the eastern-
most branch of the Ganges was called Antibolé

192

or Airthadon. This last is from the Sanskrit
Hradaéna; and is the name of the Brahmaputra.
Antibole was the name of a town situated at the
confluence of several large rivers to the S. E. of
Dhakka and now called Feringibazar.” By the
Airrhadoi, however, are undoubtedly meant the
Kirata. With regard to the position here assigned
to them Lassen thus writes (Ind. Alt., vol. ITI, pp.
235-237) :—“‘ By the name Kirradia Ptolemy de-
signates the land on the coast of further India from
the city of Pentapolis, perhaps the present Mirkan-
serai in the north, as far as the mouth of the
Tokosanna or Arakan river. The name of this
land indicates that it was inhabited by the Kirata,
a people which we find in the great Epic settled in
the neighbourhood of the Lauhitya, or Brahma.
putra, consequently somewhat further to the north
than where Ptolemy locates them. Hence arises
the question whether the Kirdta who, as we know,
belong to the Bhota, and are still found in Népal
had spread themselves to such a distance in earlier
times, or whether their name has been erroneously
applied to a different people. The last assump-
tion is favoured by the account in. the Peri-
plits, according to which ships sailing northward
from Dosaréné, or the country on both sides of
the Vaitarani, arrived at the land of the wild flat-
nosed Kirradai, who like the other savage tribes
were men-eaters. Since the author of that work
did not proceed beyond Cape Comorin, and applied
the name of Kirata to a people which lived on the
coast to the S. W. of the Ganges, it is certain that
he had erroneously used this name to denote the
wild and fabulous races. Ptolemy must have fol-

193

lowed him or other writers of the kind, and to the
mame Kirata has given a signification which did
not originate with himself. Aijthough the Kirata,
long before the time in which he lived, had wander-
ed from their northem Fatherland to the Hima-
laya and thence spread themselves to the regions
on the Brahmaputra, still it is not to be believed
that they should have possessed themselves of
territory so far south as Chaturgréma(Chittagong)
and a part of Arakan. We can therefore scarcely
be mistaken if we consider the inhabitants of this
territory at that time as a people belonging to
further India, and in fact as tribal relatives of the
Tamerai, who possessed the mountain region that
lay back in the interior, as I shall hereafter show.
I here remark that between the name of the city
Pentapolis, ze. five cities,and the name of the
most northern part of Kirradia, Chaturgrima,
t.e. four cities, there is a connexion that can
scarcely be mistaken, since Chaturgrama could
not originally have denoted a country, but only a
place which later on became the capital, though it
was originally only the capital of four village
communities over which a common headship was
possessed, while Pentapolis was the seat of a
headship over five towns or rather villages, as it
ean scarcely be believed that the rude tribes of
Kirradia were civilized enough to possess towns.
A confirmation of this view is offered by the
circumstance that the Bunzu, who must have been
descendants of a branch of the Tamerai, live in
villages under headships. We must further state
that according to the treatises used by Ptolemy
the best Malabathrum was got from Kirradia. I
25 G

194

see no reason to doubt the correctness of this state-
ment, although the trees from which this precious
oil and spice were prepared and which are different
kinds of the laurel, do not appear at the present
day to be found in this country, since, according
to the testimony of the most recent writers the
botanical productions of Arakan at least have
not as yet been sufficiently investigated. It can,
however, be asserted that in Silhet, which is not
very remote from Chaturgrima, Malabathrum is
produced at this very day.” Saint-Martin ex-
presses similar views. He writes (Etude, pp. 343,
344), “The Kirrhadia of Ptolemy, a country men-
tioned also in the Periplis as lying west from
the mouths of the Ganges and the Skyritai of
Megasthenes are cantons of Kirdta, one of the
branches of the aboriginal race the widest spread
in Gangetic India, and the most anciently known.
In different passages of the Purdnas and of the
epics their name is applied in a general manner
to the barbarous tribes of the eastern frontiers
of Aryavarta, and it has preserved itself in several
quarters, notably in the eastern districts of Népal.
There is a still surviving tradition in Tripuri
(Tipperah), precisely where Ptolemy places his
Kirrhadia, that the first name of the country was
Kirat (J. A, 8S. Beng., Vol. XIX., Long, Chronicles
of Tripurd, p. 536.) The Tamerai were a tribe
of the same family.”

Mouth of the River Katabéda:—This may
be the river of Chittagong called the Karma-
phulf. The northern point of land at its mouth
is, according to Wilford (Asiat. Research, vol,
XIV, p. 445) called Pattana, and hence he thinks

195

that Chatgr4m or Chaturgrim (Chittagong) is
the Pentapolis of Ptolemy for Pattanphulh,
which means ‘flourishing seat.’ The same au-
thor has proposed a different identification for
the Katabéda River. “In the district of San-
dowé,” he says, “is ariver and a town called in
modern maps Sedoa for Saindwa (for Sandwipa)”
and in PtolemySadusand Sada. Between this
river and Arakan there is another large one
concealed behind the island of Cheduba, and the
name of which is Katabaidé or Katabaiza. This
is the river Katabéda of Ptolemy, which, it is true,
he has placed erroneously to the north of Arakan,
but as it retains its name to this day among the
natives, and as it is an uncommon one in that
country, we can hardly be mistaken. Asthatpart of
the country is very little frequented by seafaring
people the Kattabaidi is not noticed in any
map or sea chart whatever. It was first brought
to light by the late Mr. Burrows, an able astro-
nomer, who visited that part of the coast by order
of Government. In the language of that country
katé is a fort and Byeitzé or Baidz& is the name
of a tribe in that country.” (Asiat. Res., vol. XIV,
pp. 452, 453).

Barakoura:—This mart is placed in Yule’s
map at Raémai, called otherwise Ramu, a town
lying 68 miles S.S.E. of Chittagong.

Mouth of the Tokosanna:—This river
Wilford and Lassen (Ind. Alt., vol. III,
p. 237) identified with the Arakan river. Yule
prefers the Naf, which is generally called the
Teke-naf, from the name of a tribe inhabiting
its banks.

196

3. That of the Silver country (Argyra).

Sambra, a City......ceeccesees 153° 80’ = 138° 457
Sada B CILY 27 civeeesseeeteusess 154° 20° 11° 20’
Mouth of the River Sados... 353° 80’ 32° 30°
Bérabonna, a mart..... .... .. 155° 30% 10° 20°

The mouth of the River
Teiala. sccccesvacesivaerienen’ IDF? OU LO”

Témala, a city ..........606 cove. LOI? BO! oO”
The Cape beyond it ......... 157° 20" 8°

4. That of the Bésyngeitai Cannibals
on the Sarabakic Gulf where are~—

Sabara, a city ........... batitaes 159° 30% —s 8°. 80’
Mouth of the River Bésynga 162° 20° = 8° 25”
Bésynga, a mart............... 162° oO
Bérabai, a city ............06 162° 20° = 6°
The Cape beyond it ......... 159° 4° 40/

Arakan is no doubt the Silver Country, but the
reason why it should have been so designated is
not apparent, since silver has never so far as is
known, been one of its products. It appears to
have included part of the provinee of Pegu,
which lies immediately to the south of it.

Sada:—This town is mentioned in that part of
Ptolemy’s introductory book (ch. xiii, § 7) of which
a translation has been given, as the first pert on
the eastern side of the Gangetic Gulf at which
ships from Paloura on the opposite coast touched
before proceeding to the more distant ports of
the Golden Khersonese and the Great Gulf. It
cannot be with certainty identified. “It may
perhaps have been Ezata, which appears in Pegu
legend as the name of a port between Pegu

197

and Bengal.”—Yule, quoting J. A. S. Beng., vol.
XXVIII, p. 476.

Bérabonna:—The same authority suggests
that this may be Sandowé, which Wilford proposed
to identify with Sada.

Témala is the name of a town, a river, and a
cape. In the introductory book (c. xiii, § 8) it is
called Tamala, and said to lie to the south-east of
Sada, at a distance of 3500 stadia. Yule would
identify it, though doubtfully, with Gwa. Lassen
again places it at Cape Negrais, which is without
doubt the promontory which Ptolemy says comes
after Témala.

The Sarabakic Gulf is now called the Gulf
of Martaban :—The name (Bésyngytai) of the can-
nibals is partly preserved in that of Bassein, which
designates both a town and the river which is the
western arm of the Irawadi. Ptolemy calls this
river the Bésynga. The emporium of the same
name Lassen takes to be Rangiin, but the simi-
larity of name points to its identification with
Bassein, an important place as a military position,
from its commanding the river.

Bérabai:—Beyond this Ptolemy has a pro-
montory of the same name, which may he Barago
Point. The names at least are somewhat simi-
lar and the position answers fairly to the require-
ments. Lassen took Bérabai, the town, to be
Martaban.

o. That of the Golden Khersonese
(Xpvons Xepoovngov)
Tak6la, a mart .......ee0e.06- 160° 4° 15’
The Cape beyond it ........ 158° 40° =. 2° 40’

198

Mouthof the River Khrysoa:

TABS Aaectg esas: ueawens wivdes 159° 1°
Sabana, a mart ............... 160° 3°S.L.
Mouth of the River Palandos 161° 2°S.L.
Cape Maleou Kodlon ...,...... 163° 2°S.L.
Mouth of the River Attaba 164° 1°S.L.
KOli, a town.........sseseeseeeee 164° 20 on the

equator
Perimoula ........0.ceseeeeeee. 168° 15% = 2° 2.0’

Perimoulik Gulf............... 168° 80% 4° 15’

The Golden Khersonese denotes gene-
rally the Malay Peninsula, but more specially the
Delta of the Irawadi, which forms the province
of Pegu, the Suvarnabhumi (Pali form,—Sovan-
nabhumi) of ancient times. The Golden Region
which les beyond this, in the interior, is Burma,
the oldest province of which, above Ava, is still, as
Yule informs us, formally styled in State documents
Sonapardénta, i.e. ‘Golden Frontier,”*°

Tak6éla:—Rangfn, as Yule points out, or a
port in that vicinity, best suits Ptolemy’s position
with respect to rivers, &c.,7” while at the same

23 Thornton notices in his Gazetteer of India (s. v. Bur-
mah) that when Colonel Burney was the resident in Ava,
official communications were addressed to him under the
authority of the ‘‘ Founder of the great golden city of
precious stones; the possessor of mines of gold, silver,
rubies, amber and noble serpentine.”

27 Dr. Forchammer in his paper on the First Buddhist
Mission to Suvannabhimi, pp. 7, 16, identifies Takdla
with the Burman Kola or Kula-taik and the Talaing
Taikkula, the ruins of which are still extant between
the present Ayetthima and Kinyua, now 12 miles from
the sea-shore, though it was an important seaport till
the 16th century.—J. B.

199

time Thakalai is the legendary name of the
founder of Rangfin Pagoda. There was, how-
ever, he says, down to late medieval times, a
place of note in this quarter called Takkhala,
Takola, or Tagala, the exact site of which he
cannot trace, though it was apparently on the
Martaban side of the Sitang estuary.

Mouth of the K hrysoana River :—This must
be the Eastern or Rangin mouth of the Irawadi,
for, as Yule states on the authority of Dr. F.
Mason, Hmabi immediately north of Rangdn
was anciently called Suvarnanadi, 7. e. ‘Golden
River,’ and this is the meaning of Khrysoana.

Sabana:—This may be a somewhat distorted
form of Suvarna, ‘ golden-coloured,’ and the mart
so called may have been situated near the mouth of
the Saluen River. Yule therefore identifies it
with Satung or Thatung. Lassen assigns it quite
a different position, placing it in one of the
small islands lying off the southern extremity
of the Peninsula.

Cape Maleou K6lon:—Regarding this Yule
says, “Probably the Cape at Amherst. Mr.
Crawford has noticed the singular circumstance
that this name is pure Javanese, signifying
“Western Malays.” Whether the name Malay
can be so old is a question; but I observe that in
Bastian’s Siamese Extracts, the foundation of
Takkhala is ascribed to the Malays.” Lassen
places it much further south and on the east-
ern coast of the Peninsula, identifying it with
Cape Romania (Ind. Alt., vol. III, p. 232).

K6li:—In the Proceedings of the Royal
Geographical Society, vol. IV, p. 639 ff, Colonel

200

Yule has thrown much light on Ptolemy’s
description of the coast from this place to Kat-
tigara by comparing the glimpse which it gives
us of the navigation to China in the Ist or 2nd
century of our era with the accounts of the same
navigation as wade by the Arabs seven or eight
centuries later. While allowing that it would
be rash to dogmatize on the details of the trans-
gangetic geography, he at the same time points
out that the safest guide to the true interpreta-
tion of Ptolemy’s data here lies in the probability
that the nautical tradition was never lost. He
calls attention also to the fact that the names on
the route to the Sinae are many of them Indian,
specifying as instances Sabana, Pagrasa, R.
Sobanos, Tiponobasté, Zaba, Tagora, Balonga,
Sinda, Aganagara, Brama, Ambastas, Rabana,
River Kottiaris, Kokkonagara, &c. At Koli the
Greek and Arab routes first coincide, for, to
quote his words, “I take this K6li to be the Kalah
of the Arabs, which was a month’s sail from
Kaulam (Quilon) in Malabar, and was a place
dependent on the Maharaja of Zabaj (Java or
the Great Islands) and near which were the moun-
tains producing tin. Ko-lo is also mentioned in
the Chinese history of the T’ang dynasty in terms
indicating its position somewhere in the region of
Malaka. Kalah lay on the sea of Shalahit
(which we call Straits of Malaka), but was not
very far from the entrance to the sea of Ka-
dranj, a sea which embraced the Gulf of Siam,
therefore I presume that Kalah was pretty far
down the Malay Peninsula. It may, however,
have been Kadah, or Quedda as we write it,

201

for it was 10 days’ voyage from Kalah to
TiyOmah (BatQmah. Koydmah). Now the Sea
of Kadranj was entered, the Perimulic Gulf of
Ptolemy.”

Perimulic Gulf :—Pliny mentions an Indian
promontory called Perimula where there were
very productive pearl fisheries (lib. VI, c. 54),
and where also was a very busy mart of com-
merce distant from Patala, 620 Roman miles
(lib. VI, c. 20). Lassen, in utter disregard of
Pliny’s figures indicating its position to be
somewhere near Bombay, placed it on the coasti
of the Island of Mandar. In a note to my
translation of the Indika of Megasthenes I sug-
gested that Perimula may have been in the
Island’ of Salsette. Mr. Campbell’s subsequent
identification of it however with Simylla (Tia-
mula) where there was both a cape and a great
mart of trade 1 think preferable, and indeed quite
satisfactory. But, it may be asked, how came it
to pass that a place on the west coast of India
should have the same name as another on the far
distant Malay coast. It has been supposed by way
of explanation that in very remote times a stream
of emigration from the south-eastern shores of
Asia flowed onward to India and other western
countries, and that the names of places familiar
to the emigrants in the homes they had left were
given to their new settlements. Thereis evidence
to show that such an emigration actually took
place. Yule places the Malay Perimula at Pahang.
The Perimulic Gulf is the Gulf of Siam, called by
the Arabs, as already stated, the Sea of Kadranj.
Lassen takes it to be only an indentation of the

26 G

202

Peninsular coast by the waters of this Gulf, which
in common with most other writers he identifies
with Ptolemy’s Great Gulf.

6. That of the Léstai (Robber’s country).
Samaradé.......ccccccocsessevees 163° 4° 50’
PA QVOS8 ices vecetoxeueccassteene 165° 4° 50!
Mouth of the River Sébanos 165° 40% 4° 45”
(Fontes Fluvii)’* ............... 162° 30’ 13°

Pithdnobasté, a mart......... 166° 20’ = 4° 45”
Akadra.. sescsscorsees peceieereed 167° 4° 45’
Zabai, the city,..........0..ees- 168° 40’ 40° 45’

7. Thatof the Great Gulf.
The Great Cape where the

Gulf begs 2: c00.00seccs0e5 169° 30’ = 4°: 15
PRSQOra: oxaressex se ciessceces 168° 6°
Balonga, a Metropolis ...... 167° 30’ 387°
DPRPOANG) : dwt asewseessleees cites 167° 8° 30°
Mouth of the River Doanas. 167° . 10°
(Sources of a river)”*.......... 163° 27°
Kortatha, a metropolis ...... 167° 12° 30’
Sinda, &@ tOWN ......cecceeseeees 167° 15’ 16° 40’
Paprase: sssisdco. nnd stesreeeese 167° 30’ 14° 30’
Mouth of the River Dorias. 168° 15° 30’
(Sources of a river)**......... 163° 27°

or (Tab. Geog.) 162° 20° 28!
AQANAPATA: dsnccdvvercdetecsvees 169° 16° 20°

Mosth of the River Séros ... 171° 30’ 17° 20’
(Sources of a river)**,..170° (4 add. Tab.) 32°
(Another source)’*® .,.173° ($ add. Tab.) 30°
(The confluence)”® ..........0- 171° oa”

33 Additions of the Latin Translator.

203

The end of the Great Gulf
towards the Sinai ......... 173° 17° 20’

Samaradé:—This coincides with Samarat,
the Buddhistic classical name of the place com-
monly called Ligor (i.e. Nagara, ‘the city’),
situated on the eastern coast of the Malay Penin-
sula and subject to Siam.

Mouth of the River Sé6banos :—Sobanos is the
Sanskrit Suvarna, in its Pali form Sobanna, which
means ‘golden.’ One of the old cities of Siam,
in the Meinam basin was called Sobanapuri, 2.e,
* Gold-town.’

Pithénabasté, Yule thinks, may correspond
to the Bungpasoi of our maps at the mouth of
the large navigable river Bangpa-Kong. It is at
the head of the Gulf of Siam eastward of Bankok.

Akadra:—Yule would identify this with the
Kadranj of the Arabs, which he places at Chantibon
on the eastern coast of the gulf.

4Zabai:—This city, aceording to Ptolemy, lay
to the west of the Doanas, or Mekong river, and
Yule therefore identifies it with the seaport called
Sanf or Chanf by the Arab navigators. Sanf or
Chanf under the limitations of the Arabic alpha-
bet represents C ham pa, by which the southern
extremity of Cochin-China is designated. But
Champ lies to the south of the Mekong river, and
this circumstance would seem to vitiate the iden-
tification. Yule shows, however, that in former
times Champa was a powerful state, possessed of a
territory that extended far beyondits present limits.
In the travels of Hiuen Tsiang (about A. D. 629)
it is called Mahachampa. The locality of the

204

ancient .port of Zabai er Champa is probably
therefore to be sought on the west coast of Kam-
boja, near the Kampot, or the Kang-kao of our
maps. (See Ind. Ant., vol. VI, pp. 228-230).

By the Great Gulf is meant the Gulf of Siam,
together with the sea that stretches beyond it
towards China. The great promontory where this
sea begins is that now called Cape Kamboja.

Sinda was situated on the coast near Pulo
Condor, a group of islands called by the Arabs
Sandar-F'ulat and by Marco Polo Sondur and
Condur. Yule suggests that these may be the
Satyrs’ Islands of Ptolemy, or that they may be
his Sinda.

8. The mountains in this division are thus
named :—

Bépyrrhos, whose extremities lie in 148° 34°

PTAC cans clean wale hieaweanemtaaseeaauoueanee 154° 26°
and Maiandros, whose extremities lie

TUR: hash teatived eet chemeuemesuouneeivaares 152° 24°
BUG calasavandorsssecetecsutwonais GheaGeeats 160° 16°

and Damassa (or Dobassa), whose
extremities lie in ...........6....00.4. 162° 23°

Hit yet ay ewe eeenise ar hoiunemageces Saaen. 166° 33°
and the western part of Sémanthinos,

whose extremities lie in ........... 170° 33°
PUL caigett wencor esa ce eamehaaes endataiuuedes 180° 26°

Bépyrrhos:—tThe authorities are pretty well
agroed as to the identification of this range. ‘ Bé-
pyrrhos,” says Lassen (Ind. Alt., vol I., pp. 549-50)
‘‘answers certainly to the Himalaya from the
sources of the Saray’ to those ,of the Tista.”
“ Ptolemy,” says Saint-Martin (Etude, p. 387)

205

t applies to a portion of the Himflayan chain the
name of Bépyrrhos, but with a direction to the
south-east which does not exist in theaxis of this
grand system of mountains. In general, his notions
about the Eastern Himdlayas are vague and
confused. It is the rivers which he indicates as
flowing from each group, and not the position
which he assigns to the group itself that can serve
us for the purpose of identification. He makes
two descend from Bépyrrhos and run to join
the Ganges. These rivers are not named, but
one is certainly the Kausiki and the other ought
to be either the Gandaki or the Tista.” Yule
remarks, ‘‘ Ptolemy shows no conception of the
great Brahmaputra valley. His Bépyrrhos shuts
in Bengal down to Maeandrus. The latter is the
spinal range of Arakan (Yuma), Bépyrrhos, so far
as it corresponds to facts, must include the Sikkim
Himalaya and the Garo Hills. The name is
perhaps Vipula— vast,’ the name of one of the
mythical cosmic ranges but also a specific title
of the Himalaya.”

Mount Maiandros:—From this range de-
scend all the rivers beyond the Ganges as far as the
Bésynga or Bassein river, the western branch of
the Irawadi. It must therefore be the Yuma
chain which forms the eastern boundary of Arakan,
of which the three principal rivers are the Mayu,
the Kula-dan and the Lé-myo. According to Lassen
Maiandros is the graecized form of Mandara, a
sacred mountain in Indian mythology.

Dobassa or Damassa range:—This range
contributes one of the streams which form the
great river Doanas, Bépyrrhos which is further to

206

the west, contributing the other confluent. A
single glance at the map, Saint-Martin remarks
(Btude, p. 388), clearly shows that the reference
here is to the Brahmaputra river, whose indigenous
name, the Dihong, accounts readily for the word
Doanas. It would be idle, he adds, to explain
where errors so abound, what made Ptolemy
commit the particular error of making his Doanas
rnn into the Great Gulf instead of joining the
eastern estuary of the Ganges. The Dobassa
Mountains, I therefore conclude, can only be the
eastern extremity of the Himalaya, which goes
to force itself like an immense promontory into
the grand elbow which the Dihong or Brah-
maputra forms, when it bends to the south-east to
enter Asim. Ifthe word Dobassa is of Sanskrit
origin, like other geographical appellations applied
to these eastern regions, it ought to signify the
‘mountains that are obscure,’—Tdmasa Parvata.
Yule (quoting J. A. S. Beng. vol. XXXVII, pt. ii,
p- 192) points out that the Dimasas are mentioned
in a modern paper on Asém, as a race driven down
into that valley by the immigration of the Bhotiyas.
This also points to the Bhétan Himélayas as being
the Damassa range, and shows that of the two
readings, Dobassa and Damassa, the latter is pre-
ferable.

Mount Sémanthinos is placed 10 degrees
further to the east than Maiandros, and was re-
garded as the limit of the world in that direc-
tion. Regarding these two Sanskrit designations,
Saint-Martin, after remarking that they are
more mythic than real, proceeds to observe:
‘‘These Oriental countries formed one of the

207

horizons of the Hindu world, one of the extreme
regions, where positive notions transform them-
selves gradually into the creations of mere fancy.
This disposition was common to all the peoples
of old. It is found among the nations of the
east no less than in the country of Homer.
Udayagiri,—the mountain of the east where the
sun rises, was also placed by the Brahmanik
poets very far beyond the mouths of the Ganges.
The Sémanthinds is a mountain of the same family.
It is the extreme limit of the world, it is its very
girdle (Samanta in Sanskrit). In fine, Puranik
legends without number are connected with Man-
dara, a great mountain of the East. The fabulous
character of some of these designations possesses
this interest with respect to our subject, that they
indicate even better than notions of amore posi-
tive kind the primary source of the information
which Ptolemy employed. The Maiandros, how-
ever, it must be observed, has a definite locality
assigned it, and designates in Ptolemy the chain of
heights which cover Arakan on the east.”’

9. From Bépyrrhos two rivers discharge
into the Ganges, of which the more northern has

1tS SOULCES 1D ....6...ceeeeeese: 148° 33°
and its point of junction with

the Ganges in ............... 140° 15’ 30° 20/
The sources of the other

IVEY AYE 1D ......ceeeee eee eee 142° 20°
and its point of junction with

the Ganges in ............00. 144° 26°

10. From Maiandros descend the rivers
beyond the Ganges as far as the Bésynga River,

208

but the river Séros flows from the range of
Sémanthinos from two sources, of which the

most western lies in ......... 170° 30 32°
and the most eastern in...... 173° 30’ 30°
and their confluence is in... 171° 27°

11. From the Damassa range flow the
Daonas and Dorias (the Doanas runs as far as
to Bépyrrhos)
and the Dorias rises in ...... 164° 30’ 28°

Of the two streams which unite to form the
Doanas that from the Damassa range rises
Mi acavestiebiarteeueotcuinaware 162° 27° 30°
that from Bépyrrhos rises in 153° 27° 30°
The two streams unite in... 160° 20’ 19°

The river Sébanas which flows from Maiandros
PISCS/ 10 Ses ainescies Spdaneleenerant 163° 30’ 13°

12. The rivers which having previously
united flow through the Golden Khersonese
from the mountain ridges, without name, which
overhang the Khersonese—the one flowing
into the Khersonese first detaches from it
the Attabas in about .......... ees. L6I® 2° 20°
and then the Khrysoanas inabout 161° 1° 20’
and the other river is the Palandas.

Nearly all the rivers in the foregoing table have
already been noticed, and we need here do little
more than remind the reader how they have been
identified. The two which flow from Bépyrrhos
into the Ganges are the Kausiki and the Tista,
The Bésy nga is the Bassein River or Western
branch of the Irawadi. The Séros enters the

209

sea further castward than any of the other rivers,
probably in Champa, the Zaba of Ptolemy, while
Lassen identifies it with the Mekong. TheDaonas
is no doubt the Brahmaputra, though Ptolemy,
taking the estuary of the Mekong or Kamboja
river to be its mouth, represents it as falling into
the Great Gulf. It was very probably also, to
judge from the close resemblance of the names
when the first two letters are transposed, the
Oidanes of Artemidoéros, who, according to Strabo
(lib. XV, c.i, 72), describes it as a river that bred
crocodiles and dolphins, and that flowed into the
Ganges. Ourtius (lib. VIII, c. 9) mentions a river
called the Dyardanes that bred the same creatures,
and that was not so often heard of as the Ganges,
because of its flowing through the remotest parts of
India. This must have been the same river as the
Qidanes or Doanas, and therefore the Brahma-
putra. The Dorias is a river that entered the
Chinese Sea between the Mekong Estuary and
the Séros. The Sobanas is perhaps the river
Meinam on which Bangkok, the Siamese capital,
stands. The A ttabas is very probably the Tavoy
river which, though its course is comparatively
very short, is more than a mile wide at its mouth,
and would therefore be reckoned a stream of im-
portance. The similarity of the names favours
this identification. The Khrysoana is the
eastern or Rangdin arm of the Irawadt. The
Palandas is probably the Salyuen River.

Ptolemy now proceeds to -describe the interior
of Transgangetic India, and begins with the tribes
or nations that were located along the banks of
the Ganges on its eastern side.

27 G

210

13. The regions of this Division lying alone
the course of the Ganges on its eastern side and
furthest to the north are inhabited by the
Ganganoi, through whose dominions flows
the river Sarabos, and who have the following
towns :—

SR POlOS cewdeeeweeiiedutenn eles 139° 20’ 35°
LOMA vi cowevsesctawceesioaes 188° 40° 347 40"
Heorta ......ccccessesssssecceocee 138° 30% 34°
Rhappha ............ sce... 187° 40% 33° 40°

For Gan gan oishould undoubtedly be read.
Tanganoi,as Tabganu was the name given in
the heroic ages to one of the great races who
occupied the regions along the eastern banks
of the upper Ganges. Their territory probably
stretched from the Ramgang4 river to the
upper Sarayd, which is the Sarahos of Ptolemy.
Their situation cannot be more preciscly defined,
as none of their towns named in the table can with
certainty be recognized. ‘“ Concerning the people
themselves,” says Saint- Martin ( Btude, pp. 827,328)
“we are better informed. They are represented
in the Mahdbhdrata as placed between the Kiraita
and the Kulinda in the highlands which protected
the plains of Kosala on the north. They were
one of the barbarous tribes, which the Bralmanic
Aryans, in pushing their conquests to the east of
the Ganges and Jamna, drove back into the Hima-
layas or towards the Vindhyas. It is principally
in the Vindhya regions that the descendants of
the Tangana of classic times are now to be found.
One of the Rajput tribes, well-known in the
present day under the name of Tank ov Tonk is

Al]

settled in Rohilkhand, the very district where
the Mahdbhdrata locates the Tangana and Ptolemy
his Tanganoi. These Tank RAjputs extend west-
ward toa part of the Doib, and even as far as
Gujarat, but it is in the race of the Dangayas,
spread over the entire length of the Vindhya
Mountains and the adjacent territory from the
southern borders of the ancient Magadha to the
heart of Malwa to the north of the lower Narmada,
it is in this numerous race, subdivided into clans
without number, and which is called according to
the districts inhabited Dhangis, Dhangars, Donga,
&c. that we must search for the point of departure
of the family and its primordial type. This type,
which the mixture of Aryan blood has modified
and ennobled in the tribes called Rajput, preserves
its aboriginal type in the mass of mountain tribes,
and this type is purely Mongolian, a living
commentary on the appellation of Mlechha, or
Barbarian, which the ancient Brahmanic books
apply to the Tangana.’’ (Conf. Brith. Sarnh. 1x,
17; x, 12; x1v, 12,29; xvi, 6; xvul, 25; xxx1,15
Rimdyana iv, 44, 20).

The towns, we have said, cannot be identified
with certainty, but we may quote Wilford’s views
as to what places now represent them. He says
(Asiat. Research. vol. XIV, p. 457): ‘The Ban or
Saraban river was formerly the bed of the Ganges
and the present bed to the eastward was also once
the Ban or Saraban river. This Ptolemy mistook
for the Ramagangé, called also the Ban, Saraban
and Sardvati river, for the four towns which he
places on its banks, are either on the old or the
new bed of theGanges. Stornaand Sapolos

212

are Hastnaura, or Hastina-nagara on the old bed,
and Sabal, now in ruins, on the eastern bank of
the new bed, and is commonly called Sabalgarh.
Hastinapur is 24 miles S. W. of Ddrdnagar, and
11 to the west of the present Ganges; and it is
called Hastnawer in the Ayin Akbari. Heorta
is Awartta or Hardwar. It is called Arate in
the Peutinger tables, and by the Anonymous of
Ravenna.”

14. To the south of these are the Maroun-
dai who reach the Gangaridai, and have
the following towns on the east of the
Ganges :—

Boraita..........068 Suess . 142° 20’ 29°
Korygaza ......eeee sietesewsee L4G BO -27°.15!
Konddta ......cecceees Mesivenes L400 26°
Kelydna) ccsvcceastessdciees dese. aD" 25° 80’
Aganagora ....... pssetescoanes 146° 30% 22° 30’
Talarga ....... pegrtneaee tie tave 146° 40’ 21° 40’

The Maroundai occupied an_ extensive
territory, which comprised Tirhut and the country
southward on the east of the Ganges, as far as
the head of its delta, where they bordered with the
Gangaridai. Their name is preserved to this day
in that of the Mdandas, a race which originally
belonged to the Hill-men of the North, and is now
under various tribal designations diffused through
Western Bengal and Central India, ‘‘ the nucleus
of the nation being the Ho or Hor tribe of Singh-
bham.2® They are probably the Monedes of
enumerated by Dalton, id. p. 158, are the Kuars of Tich-

pur, the Korewas of Sirguja and Jaspur, the Kherias of
Chutia Nagpur, the Hor of Singhbhum, the Bhumij of

213

whom Pliny speaks, in conjunction with the Saari.
That they were connected originally with the
Muranda, a people of Lampaka (Lamghién) at
the foot of the Hindu-Koh mentioned in the
inscription on the Allahibéd pillar, along with the
Saka, as one of the nations that brought tributary
gifts to the sovereign of India, is sufficiently pro-
bable®*®; but the theory that these Muranda on
being expclled from the valleys of the Képhés by
the invasion of the Yetha, had crossed the Indus
and advanced southwards into India till they
established themselves on the Ganges, in the king-
dom mentioned ,by Ptolemy, is, as Saint-Martin has
clearly proved (Etude, pp. 329,330) utterly untenable,
since the sovereign to whom the Muranda of the
north sent their gifts was Samudragupta, who
reigned subsequently to the time of Ptolemy, and
they could not therefore have left their ancestral
seats before he wrote. Saint-Martin farther observes
that not only in the case before us but in a host of
analogous instances, it is certain that tribes of
like name with tribes in India are met with
throughout the whole extent of the region north of
the Indus, from the eastern extremity of the
Himalaya as far as the Indus and the Hindu-K6h,
but this he points out is attributable to causes
more general than the partial migration of certain
tribes. The Vayu Purdna mentions the Muranda
among the Mlechha tribes which gave kings to

Manbhtim Dhalbhiim, aud the Séntals of Manbhiim
Singhbhum, Katak, Hazaribigh and the Bhigalrpur
hills. The western branches are the Bhills of Malwa and
Kanhdés and the K6lis of Gujarat.

30 Mahibh. vii, 4847; Reinaud, Mém. sur V Inde,
p. 353 Lassen, Ind. Alt., vol. IJ, p. 877.—En.

214

India during the period of subversion which
followed the extinction of the two great Aryau
dynasties. See Cunningham, Ane. Geog. of Ind.,
pp. 505-509, also Lassen, Jud. Alt., vol. III,
pp. 136f. 155—157, and vol. II, p. 877n.
Regarding the towns of the Maroundai, we may
quote the ,following gencral observations of Saint-
Martin (tude, pp. 331,532). ‘ The list of towns
attributed to the Maroundai would, it might be
expected, enable us to determine precisely what
extent of country acknowledged in Ptolemy’s time
the authority of the Muranda dynasty, but the
corruption of many of the names in the Greek
text, the inexactitude or insufficiency of the indi-
cations and, in fine, the disappearance or change of
name of old localities, render recognition often
doubtful, and at times impossible.”” Hethen gocs
on to say: ‘‘ The figures indicating the position of
these towns form a series almost without any devia-
tion of importance, and betoken therefore that we
have an itinerary route which cuts obliquely all the
lower half of the Gangetic region. From Boraita
to Kelydna this line follows with sufficient regu-
larity an inclination to S. E. to the extent of about
6 degrees of a great circle. On leaving Kelydna
it turns sharply to the south and continues in
this direction to Talar ga, the last place on the
list, over a distance a little under four degrees. This
sudden change of direction is striking, and when
we consider that the Ganges near Rajmahal alters
its course just as sharply, we have here a coin-
cidence which suggests the enquiry whether near
the point where the Ganges so suddenly bends,
there is a place having a name something like

Kelydna, which it may be safely assumed is a bad
transcription into Greek of the Sanskrit Kalinadt
(‘black river’) of which the vulgar form is K4lindi.
Well then, Kalindi is found to be a name applied
to an arm of the Ganges which communicates
with the Mahanand4, and which surrounds on the
north the large island formed by the Mahananda
and Ganges, where once stood the famous city of
Gauda or Gaur, now in ruins. Gauda was not in
existence in Ptolemny’s time, but there may have
been there a station with which if not with the
river itself the indication of the table would
agree. At all events, considering the double
accordance of the name and the position, it seems to
me there is little room to doubt that we have there
the locality of Kelydna. The existing town of
Malda, built quite near the site of Gaur, stands at
the very confluence of the Kalindt and Mahananda.
This place appears to have preserved the name of
the ancient Malada of tho Purdnik lists, very
probably the Molindai of Megasthenés. This
point being settled, we are able to refer thereto the
towns in the list, both those which precede and
those which follow after. We shall commence with
the last, the determination of which rests on data
thatarelcss vague. These arc Aganagara and
Talarga. The table, as we have seen, places them
on a line which desccnds towards the sea exactly
to the south of Kelydna. If, as seems quite likely,
these indications have been furnished to Ptolemy
by the designating of a route of commerce
towards the interior, it is natural to think that this
route parted from the great emporium of the
Ganges (the Gangé Regia of Ptolemy, the

216

Ganges emporium of the Periplds) which should be
found, as we have already said, near where Haghli
now stands. From Kelydna te this point the route
descends in fact exactly to the south, following
the branch of the Ganges which forms the western
side of the delta. The position of Aghadip
Agadvipa) on the eastern bank of the river a
little below Katwa, can represent quite suitably
Aganagora (Aganagara); while Talarga may be-
taken to be a place some leagues distant from Cal-
cutta, in the netghbourhood of Htighli..... The
towns which precede Kelydna are far from having
tle same degree of probability. We have nothing
more here to serve for our guidance than the
distances taken from the geographical nota-
tions, and we know how uncertain this indication
is when it has no check to control it. The first
position above Kelydna is Kondota or Ton-
dota; the distance represented by an arc of two
degrees of a great circle would conduct us to the
lower Bagamat! (Bhagavati), Korygaza or
Sorygaza (distant $ degree) would come to be
placed perhaps on the Gandaki, perhaps between
the Gandakf and the lower Sarayd; last of all
Boraita, at two degrees from Korygaza, would
conduct us to the very heart of ancient Kosala,
towards the position of the existing town of Bars
di. We need scarcely add, in spite of the con-
nexion of the last two names, that we attach but a
faint value to detcrminations which rest on data
so vague.’ Boraitw may be, however, Bharéch
in Audh, as Yule has suggested, and with regard
to Korygaza, it may be observed that the last part
of the name may represent the Sanskrit hachha,

217

which means a marsh. or place near a marsh, and
hence Korygaza may be Gorakhpur, the situation
of which is notably marshy.

15, Between the Imaés and _ Bépyrrhos
ranges the Takoraioi are farthest north, and
below them are the Korangkaloi, then the
Passalai, after whom to the north of Maian-
dros are the Tiladai, such being the name
applied to the Béseidaiz,for they are short of
stature and broad and shaggy and _ broad-
faced, but of a fair complexion.

Takoraioi:—This tribe occupied the valleys
at the foot of the mountains above Eastern Kosala
and adjoined the Tanganoi. The Tanganas are
mentioned among the tribes of the north in the
lists of the Brihat Savhitaé (1X, 17; X, 12; XIV,
29). They have left numerous descendants in
different parts of Gangetic India. A particalar
clanin Rohilkhand not far from the seats of the
Takoraioi preserves still the name under the form
Dakhaura(Elliot’s Supplementary Glossary of Indtan
terms, p. 360), and other branches are met with
near the Jamnaé and in Rajputaina. Towards the
east again the Dekra form a considerable part of
the popalation of Western Asim (J. A. S. Beng.,
vol. XVIII, p. 712).

Korangkaloi;—These are probably of the
same stock, if not actually the same people, as
Korankara of the Purduas (Asiaut. Research,
vol. VIII), and the Kyankdanis of Shékavati.
Their position is near the sources of the Gandak.

Passalai:—The Passalai here mentioned are
not to be coufounded with the Passalai of the Doab.

28 G

218

In the name is easily to be recognized the Vaisali
of Hiuen Tsiang, which was a small kingdom
stretching northward from the Ganges along the
banks of the river Gandak. The capital had the
same name as the kingdom, and was situated in the
immediate neighbourhood of Hajipur, a station
near the junction of the Gandak and Ganges, where
a great fair is annually beld, distant from Patna
about 20 miles. ‘‘ Here we find the village of
Besarh, with an old ruined fort, which is still
called Raja Bigal-ka-garh, or the fort of Raja
Visala, who was the reputed founder of the
ancient Vaisali.” (Cunningham, <Anc. Geog. of
Ind., p. 443).

Tiladai:—We here leave the regions adjoin-
ing the Ganges, and enter the valleys of the Brah-
maputra. The Tiladai are called also Bésadai or
Basadai. Ptolemy places them above the Maiandros,
and from this as well as his other indications, we
must take them to be the hill-people in the vicinity
of Silhet, where, as Yule remarks, the plains break
into an infinity of hillecks, which are specially
known as tila. It is possible, he thinks, that the
Tiladai occupied these télas, and also that the
Tiladri hills (mentioned in the Kshetra Samdsa)
were the same Tilas. The same people is men-
tioned in the Periplts, but under the corrupt
form of Sésatai. The picture drawn of them by
the author of that work corresponds so closely with
Ptolemy’s, that both authors may be supposed
to have drawn their information from the same
source. We may quote (in the original) what
each says of them :—

Periplis: e€vos tt, T@ pev ogwpatt KodoBol Kat

219

apddpa mdrarutpdownro, evvoias dé AParoe avrovs
[dé] A€yerOai [pact] Enodras, mapopoious dunpepors.
Ptolemy : eioi yap KodoBoi, Kat mdarets, Kat
Saceis, kat TAaTUTpdcwrTot, AevKOL pevToe Tas Xpvas.
Description af the regions which extend from
the Brahmaputra to the Great Gulf.

16. Beyond Kirrhadia, in which they
say the best Malabathrum is produced, the
Aamitrai,a race of cannibals, are located near
Mount Maiandros,

17. Beyond the Silver Country, m which
there are said to be very many silver mines,
(«eradXa dojpov), is situated in juxtaposition to
the Bésyngeitai, the Gold Country (Xpva7
x#pa), in which are very many gold mines, and
whose inhabitants resemble the Zamirai, in
being fair-complexioned, shaggy, of squat figure,
and flat-nosed.

Kirrhadia —Thig has been already noticed.
With reference to its product Malabathrum, which
is not betel, but cohsists of the leaves of one or
more kinds of the cinnamon or cassia-tree. J may
quote the following passage from the J. A. 8. Beng.,
vol. XVI, pp. 38-9 :—* Cirnamomum albiflorum is
designated taj, fejpat in Hindustani, the former
name being generally applied to the leaf and the
latter to the bark of the tree; tay, tejpata, or teyapa-
tra, by all which names this leaf is known, is used
as a condiment inall pats of India. It is indigen-
ons in Silhet, Asim, Rungpur (the Kirrhadia of
Ptolemy), and in the valleys of the mountain-range
as faras Masuri. The dry branches and leaves

220

are brought annually in large quantities from the
former place, and sold at a fair, which is held at
Vikramapura. Taj, however, is a name that 1s also
given in the eastern part of Bengal to the bark
of a variety of Cinnamomam Zeylanicum or Cassia
lignea, which abounds in the valleys of Kachar,
Jyntiya and Asam.” The word Malabathrum is a
compound of tamala (the Sanskrit name of Cinna-
momum albiflorum) and pdtra, ‘a leaf” Another
derivation has been suggested mdld, ‘a garland,’
and pdtra ‘a leaf.’ (Lassen, Ind. Alt., vol. I, p. 288
seq.,and conf. Dymock’s Veget. Mat. Med., p. 558).

The following interesting passage describes
the mode in which the Bésadai trade in this article
with the Chinese. I translate from the Peiiplts,
cap. 65:—On the confines of Thina is held an
annual fair attended by a race of men called the
Sésatai, who areof asquat figure, broad-faced, and
in appearance like wild beasts, though all the same
they are quite mild and gentle in thew disposition.
They resort to this fair with their wives and
children, taking great loads of produce packed in
mats like the young leaves of the vine. ‘The fair
is held where their country borders on that of the
Thinai. Here, spreading out the mats they use
them for lying on, and devote several days to
festivity. ‘This being over, they withdraw into
their own country and the Thinai, when they see
they have gone, come forward and collecting the
mats, which had been purposely left behind, extract
first from the Calami (called Petroi), of which they
were woven, the sinews and fibres, and then taking
the leaves fold them double and roll them up into
balls through which they pass the fibres of the

221

Calami. The balls are of three kinds, and are
designated according to the size of the leaf from
which they are made, hadro, meso and mikro-
sphairon. Hence there are three kinds of Malaba-
thiwm, aud these are then carried into India by the
manufacturers.

~ Yamtrai:—A various reading is Zamerai. It
has been already stated that this was a tribe of
the same family as the Kirata, heside whom they
are named in the great geographical catalogue of
the Mahibhératu. Ramifications of the Zamirai
still exist under the names of Zamarias, Tomara,
&c., in the midst of the savage districts which
extend to the S. and 8.E. of Magadha, and to the
west of the Son. |

The silver country, it has already been noticed,
is Arakan, and the gold country and copper
country, Yule remarks, correspond curiously even
in approximate position with the Sonapardnta
(golden frontier land), and Zampadipa of Burmese
state-documents. The Malay peninsula, taken
generally, has still many mines both of the
precious and the useful metals.

18, And, again, between the ranges of
Bépyrrhos and Damassa, the country
furthest north is inhabited by the Aninakhai
(or Aminakhai), south of these the Inda-
prathai, after these the Ibéringai, then
the Dabasai (or Damassai ?), and up to
Maiandros the Nangalogai, which means
‘*the World of the Naked”’ (yupvav kécpos).

19. Between the Damas sa range and the
frontiers of the Sinai are located furthest

222

north the Kakobai; and below them the
Basanaral.

20. Nextcomes the country of Khalk itis,
in which are very many copper mines.
South of this, extending to the Great Gulf
the Koudoutai, and the Barrhai, and,
after them the Indoi, then the Doanai,
along the river of the same name.

21. To these succeeds a mountainous coun-
try adjoining the country of Robbers (Aycrayv)
wherein are found elephants and tigers. The
inhabitants of the Robber country are re-
ported to be savages (@npimdes), dwelling in
caves, and that have skins like the hide of
the hippopotamus, which darts cannot pierce
through.

Aninuakhai:—The position Ptolemy assigns to
them is the mountain region to the north of the
Brahmaputra, corresponding to a portion of Lower
Asam.

Indaprathai:—This is a purely Hindu
name. In Sanskrit documents and in inscrip-
tions mention is made of several towns in
the provinces of the Ganges, which had taken the
name of the oid and famous JIndraprastha (the
modern Dehli), and we may conclude that the
Indaprathai of the East were a Brahmanic
settlement. Ju subsequent times Sanskrit desig-
nations spread further down into the Dekhan
with the cultus, either of the Brahmans or the
Buddhists. Instances in point are Modura and
Kosamba, which have beenalready noticed. The

223

Indaprathai appear to have established them-
selves in the districts 8. of the Brahmaputra, and
of the Aninakhai.

Ibéringai and Dabasai or Damas-
sai:—The Damassai (now the Dimasas as
already noticed), occupied the region extending
from their homonymous mountains to the Brahma-
putra, but further to the east than the Aninakhat
and Ibéringai.

Nangalogai:—Many tribes still existing on
the hills, east and north-east of Silhet, are called
Nagas. This name, which is given correctly in
Ptolemy as Nauga, is the Indian word for naked,
and according to Yule it is written Nanga in
the Musalman History of Asim. The absolute
nakedness of both sexes, he says, continues in
these parts to the present day. The latter half of
the name /6g (Sanskrit 16k), is the Indian term for
people, mankind, or the world, as Ptolemy has it.

With regard to the other tribes enumerated,
Saint Martin remarks (Blude, pp. 345-6) :—
“The Ibéringai are still a tribe of the north
just as the Dabassaé, perhaps on the mountains of
the same name. There is still a tribe of Dhobas
in Dinajpur, one of the districts of the north-east
of Bengal, on the confines of the ancient Kamardpa.
T'o the east of the Dobassa mountains, towards the
frontiers of the Sinai, the tribe of the Kakobai is
found toe a surety in that of the Khokus, who
occupy the same districts. The Basannarae, in a
locality more southern, are very probably the
Bhanzas, a tribe of the mountains to the south of
Tippera, east of the mouth of the Brahmaputra.
In the Koudoutai and the Barrhai, it is easy to

224

recognize, though Ptolemy carries them too far
into the south, the Kolitas and the Bhars or Bhors,
two of the most notable parts of the population of
Western Asam, and of the districts of Bengal that
belong to Kimartpa. The Doanai or Daonai are
perpetuated in the Zaén of Eastern Asim; and

. the name of the Léstae, the last of the list, corre-
sponds to all appearance to that of the Lepchhas, a
well-known mountain race on the contines of
Sikkim tothe west of the Tista.” For notices of
the tribes which he has thus identified with those
of Ptolemy, he refers to the Journal of the Asiatic
Society of Bengal, vols. VI, IX, XIV, and XVIII.
His identification of the Léstai with the Lepchhas
isineveryway unfortunate. Thatthename Anorat
is not a transcript of any indigenous name, but
the Greek name for robbers or pirates, is apparent
from the fact alone that the 7 has the idta
subscribed. The Lepchhas, moreover, live among
mountains, far in the interior, while Ptolemy
locates his Léstai along the shores of the Gulf of
Siam.

Ptolemy gives next a list of 33 towns in the
intertor by way of supplement to those already
mentioned as situated along the course of the
Ganges, followed by a list of the towns in the
Golden Khersonese :—

22, The inland towns and villages of this
division (Transgangetic India), in addition
to those mentioned along the Ganges are
called :— |
Sélampoura,,............. 148° 80% 33° 20°
Kanogiza .o.-.-cecs-eoceee 143° 32°

220

Kassida ..ccocsenscosanves 146°
Pld ane assesses ceiencies 152":
Asanabara ...cee-eeceeeee 155°
Arkhinara .....scee.eeeee 163°
Ourathénal .....ccee ee 170°
Souanagoura ..e.ce.eeeee 145° 30’
Sagdda or Saddga ...... 155° 20°
ANNIE ecco aaeicate sates 162°

Salatha....ccceccesceeseese) L65° 40°
23. Rhadamarkotta,

in which is much nard... 172°

Athénagouron ............ 146° 20°

Maniaina (or Maniataia) 147° 15’

Tdsalei, a metropolis ... 150°

Alosanga ....cecceces serene 152°
Ade1SAGA .,.....c0rereeeres 159° 30°
Kaas ig ivan ss aseew conse 170°
Parisara: sediccawararkiacs 179°
Tougma, a metropolis... 152° 30’
AYviSab10N ....c6se0-esseeres 158° 30’
POSINatd: sasiasursnweces tee 162° 15’
PANGASAs aides trcteraaciun 165°

Sipibéris (or Sittébéris). 170°

Triglypton, called also Trilingon, capital
<8?

In this part the cocks are’ said to be

of the kingdom ....,. 154°

31° 10’
31°
31° 30’
31°
31° 20’
29° 30°
29° 20’
29°
28° 20°

28°

27°

24° 40°
23° 20°
24° 15’
23°

23° 15’
21° 30°
22° 15’
22° 30’
22° 50°
21° 20°
23° 15’

bearded, and the crows and parrots white.

24. Lariagara ...... 162° 30’
Rhingibéri .............6 166°
Agimoitha .......ceceeees 170° 40°
Domara .pacorsemensseres 172°

29 G

18° 15”
18°
18° 40’
18°

Dasana or Doana ...... 163? 15° 20’
Mareoura, a metropolis,

ealled also Malthoura 158° 12° 30’
Lasippa (or Lasyppa’... 161° 12° 30’

Bareukora (or Bareua-
GUTS: var covessaerescsasecs. LO4 30 - 12°00"
25. In the Golden Khersonese—

Balongka ......c00.ee ees sag LOZ? 4° 40’
Kokkonagara ....... ae), 160" 2°
CHOP h Dy schitdsoonseanes .. 162° 1° 20'S.
Palanda .o.....e.ee dss LOL? 1° 20’ S.

Regarding the foregoing long list of inland towns,
the following general observations by Saint-Martin
are instructive: ‘ With Ptolemy, unfortunately,”
he says (tude, pp. 348-9) “the correspondence
of names of towns in many instances, is less easy
to discover than in the case of the names of
peoples or tribes. This is shown once again in
the long-enough list which he adds to the names
of places already mentioned under the names of
the people to which they respectively belonged.
To judge from the repetitions in it and the want of
connexion, this list appears to have been supplied
to him by a document different from the docu-
ments he had previously used, and it is precisely
because he has not known how to combine its
contents with the previous details that he has thus
given it separately and as an appendix, although
thereby obliged to go again over the same ground
he had already traversed. For a country whero
Ptolemy had not the knowledge of it as a whole to
guide him, it would he unjust to reproach him with
this want of connexion in his materials, and the con-

227

fusion therefrom resulling; butthis absence, almost
absolute, of connexion’ does only render the task
of the critic all the more laborious and unwelcome
and there results from it strange mistakes for
those who without sufficiently taking into account
the composition of this part of the Tables, have
believed they could find in the relative positions
which the places have there taken a sufficient means
of identification. It would only throw one into the
risk of error to seck for correspondences to these
obscure names, (of which there is nothing to
guarantee the correctness, and where there is not
a single name that is assigned to a definite terri-
tory,) in the resemblances, more orless close, which
could be furnished by a topographical dictionary
of India.”

Sélampoura:—This suggests Sclempur, a
place situated at some distance north of the Déva
or lower Sarayd. The identity of the names is
our only warrant for taking them as applying to
one and the same town; but as the two places
which follow belong te the same part of the
country, the identification is in some measure
supported. Sclempur is situated on a tributary
of the Sarayd, the little Gandak.

Kanogiza:—This is beyond doubt the famous
city of Kanyakubja or Kanauj, which has already
been noticed under the list of towns attributed to
Prasiaké, where the name is given ag Kanagora.
Ptolemy, while giving here the name more corrcct-
ly has put the city hopelessly out of its position
with reference to the Ganges, from which he has
removed it several degrees, though it stood upon
its banks, Among Indian cities it ranks next in

228

point of antiquity to Ayodhya in Audh, and it was
for many centuries the Capital of North-Western
India. It was then a stately city, full of incre-
dible wealth, and its king, who was sometimes
styled the Emperor of India, kept a very splendid
court. Its remains are 65 miles W.N.W. from
Lakhnau. The place was visited by Hiuen Psiang
in 634 4.p. Pliny (H. N. lib. VI, e. 21) has Calini-
paxa. Conf. Lassen, Ind. Alf. vol. I, p. 158;
Mahdbh. Ut, 8313; Rdmdyana, fT, 34, 37.

Kassida:—Here we have another case of a
recurrence of the same name in an altered form.
In Sanskrit and in inscriptions Kasi is the ordi-
nary name of Banaras. How Ptolemy came to
lengthen the name by affixing du to it has not been
explained. Ptolemy has mutilated Varanasi into
Erarasa, which he calls a metropolis, and assigns
to the Kaspeiraioi. Such is the view taken by
Saint-Martin, but Yule, as we have seen, identifies
Erarasa with Govardban (Giriraja). He also
points out, on the authority of Dr. F. Hall
that Vaéranasi was never used as a name for
Banaras. ;

Souanagotra:—M. Saint-Martin (Btude, p.
351)thinks this is a transcript of the vulgar form of
Suvarnanagara, and in this name recognizes that
of one of the ancient capitals of Eastern Bengal,
Suvarnagrama (now Sdénargaon, about 12 miles
from Dhakka), near the right bank of the Lower
Brahmaputra.

Sag6da:—There can be no doubt of the iden-
tity of this place with Aydédhya, the capital of
Kosala, undcr the name of Sékcta or Sagtda.
Sakyamuni spent the last days of his hfe in this

» 2389

city, and during his sojourn the ancient name
of Ayddhy& gave place to that of Sakéta, the
only one current. Hindu lexicograpbers give
Sakéta and Kosala (or Kogala) as synonyms of
Ayodhya. The place is now called Audh, and is
on the right bank of the Sarayd or Ghaghré, near
Faizibid, a modern town, built from its ruins.
At some distance north from Audh is the site of
Sravasti, one of the most celebrated cities in the
annals of Buddhism. For the identity of Sakéta
with Ayddhya and also Vidéakha see Cunningham,
Geog. of Anc. Ind., pp. 401 sqq.
Rhadamarkotta (v. 1. Rhandamarkotta).
Saint-Martin has identified this with Rangémati,
an ancient capital situated on the western bank
of the lower Brahmaputra, and now called Udé-
pur (Udayapura,—city of eunrise). Yule, who
agrees with this identification, gives as the Sans-
krit form of the name of the place, Ranga-
mritika. The passage about Nard which follows
the mention of Rhadamarkotta in the majority
of editions is, according to Saint-Martin (Etude,
p. 352 and note), manifestly corrupt. Some editors,
correct moAAy, mutch, into wédAecs, ciftes, and thus
Nardos becomes the name of a town, and Rha.
damarkotta the name of a district, to which
Nardos and the towns that come after it in the
Table kelong. On this point we may quote a
passage from Wilford, whose views regarding
Rhadamarkotta were different. He says (Aszat.
Research. vol. XIV, p. 441), Ptolemy has delineated
tolerably well the two branches of the river of
Ava and the relative situation of two towns upon
them, which still retain their ancient name, only

230

they are transposcd. Thesetwotowns are Urathéna,
and Nardos or Nardon; Urathena is Rhadana,
the ancient name of Amarapur, and Nardon is
Nartenh on the Kayu-dween. . . .” He says that
“Nartenh was situated in the country of Rhanda-
markota, literally, the Fort of Randamar, after
which the whole country was designated.”
Tdsalei, called a Metropolis, has become of
great importance since recent archwological dis-
coveries have led to the finding of the name
in the Asoka Inscriptions on the Dhauli rock.
The inscription begins thus: “ By the orders of
Dévanampiya (beloved of the gods) it is enjoined
to the public officers charged with the administra-
tion of the city of Tosali,’’ &c. Vestiges of a
larger city have been discovered not far from the
site of this monument, and there can be no
doubt that the Tosali of the inscription was the
capital in Asoka’s time of the province of Orissa,
and continued to be so till at least the time of
Ptolemy. The city was situated on the margin
of a pool called Kosala- Ganga, which was an object
of great religious veneration throughout all the
country. Itis pretty certain that relative to this
circumstance is the name of Tosala-Kosdalakas,
which is found in the Brahmdnda Purdna, which
Wilford had already connected with the Tosalé of
Ptolemy. He had however been misled by the
2nd part of the word to locate the city in N.
Kosala, that is Audh. An obvious objection to
the locating of Toésalé in Orissa is that Ptolemy
assigns its position to the eastern side of thie
Ganges, and Lassen and Burnouf have thus been
Jed to conclude that there must have been two

231

cities of the name. Lassen accordingly finds for
Ptolemy’s Tosalé a place somewhere in the Province
of Dhakka. But there is no necessity for this. If
we take into account that the name of Toésalé is
among those that are marked as having been
added to our actual Greek texts by the old Latin
translators (on what authority we know not) we
shall be the less surprised to find it out of its real
place. (Saint-Martin, Etude, pp. 358-4, citing J. A.
S. Beng., vol. VII, pp. 435 and 442; Lassen, Ind.
Alt., vol. II, p. 256, and vol. III, p. 158; and
Asiat. Research. vol. VIII, p. 844). |

Alosanga:—The geographical position of
Alosanga places it a quarter degree to the north
of the upper extremity of Mount Maiandros. “By
a strange fatality,’ says Wilford (Asiat. Res.
ut s., p. 390) “the northern extremity of Mount
Maindros in Ptolemy’s maps is brought close to
the town of Alosanga, now Ellasing on the Lojung
river, to the north-west of Dhakka. This mistake
is entirely owing to his tables of longitude and
latitude.”

Toug ma:—In Yule’s map this is identified,
but doubtfully, with Tagaung, a place in Khrysé
(Burma) east from the Ivawadi and near the
tropics. .

Triglypton or Trilingon:—Opinions
vary much as to where this capital was situated.
Wilford says (Asiat. Research. vol. XIV, p. 450-2) :
‘Ptolemy places on the Tokosanna, the Metropolis
of the country, and calls it Trilingon, a true
Sanskrit appellation. Another name for it, says
our author, was Triglypton, which is an attempt
to render into Greek the meaning of Trilinga or

232

Trai-linga, the three ‘lingas’ of Mahidéva; and
this in Arakan is part of an extensive district
in the Purdnas, called Tri-pura, or the three
towns and towuships first inhabited by three
Daityas. These three districts were Kamila,
Chattala and Burmanaka, or Raégang, to be pro-
nounced Ra-shénh, or nearly so; it is now
Arakan, Kamilla alone retains the name of Tri-
pura, the two other districts having been wrested
from the head Raja. Ptolemy says that in the
country of the Trilinga, there were white ravens,
white parrots, and bearded cocks. The white
parrot is the kdkitwi; white ravens are to be
seen occasionally in India ... Some say that
this white colour might have been artificial... .
The bearded cocks have, as it were, a collar of
reversed feathers round the neck and throat,
and there only, which gives it the appearance of a
beard. These are found only in the houses of
native princes, from whom I procured three or
four; and am told that they came originally
from the hills in the N. W. of India.”” Lassen
has adopted a somewhat similar view. He
says (Ind. Alt., vol. Ill, p. 238-9): “ Trigly-
phon was probably the capital of the Silver
country, Arékan of the present day. It lies,
according to Ptolemy’s determination, one degree
further east and 34 degrees further north than
the mouths of the Arakan river. The mouths
are placed in the right direction, only the numbers
are too great. It may be added that the founda-
tion of this city, which was originally called
Vaisali, belongs to earlier times than those of
Ptolemy, and no other capital is known to us in

233 .

this country. The Greek name which means
‘thrice cloven,’ t.e., ‘ three-forked’ or ‘a trident’
suits likewise with Arakan, because it lies at the
projections of the delta, and the Arakan river, in
the lower part of its course, splits into several
arms, three of which are of superior importance.
Ptolemy’s remark that the cocks there are bearded
and the ravens and parrots white, favours this
view, for according to Blyth (J. A. 8. Beng., vol. XV,
p. 26) there is found in Arakan a species of the
Bucconidae, which on account of their beards are
called by the English ‘ barbets,’ and on the same
authority we learn that what is said of the ravens
and parrots is likewise correct.” OCnnningham
again, says (Anc. Geog. of Ind., pp. 518-9): “In
the inscriptions of the Kalachuri, or Haihaya
dynasty of Chédi, the Rajas assume the titles
of “‘ Lords of Kalifijarapura, and of Trikalinga.”’
Trikalinga, or the three Kalingas, must be the
three kingdoms Dhanakataka, or Amaravatt, on
the Krishna, Andhra or Warangol,and Kalinga, or
Rajamahéndri. ‘The name of Trikalinga is pro-
bably old, as Pliny mentions the Macco-Calingss
and the Gangarides-Calingae as separate peoples
from the Calingae, while the Mahabharata names
the Kalingas three separate times, and each time
in conjunction with different peoples. As Tri-
kalinga thus corresponds with the great province
of Télingana, it seems probable that the name of
Télingana may be only a slightly contracted form
of Trikalingana, or the three Kalingas. I am
aware that the name is usually derived from
Tri-linga, or the three phalli of Mahadéva. Bat
the mention of Macco-Calingae and Gangarides-

80 G

234

Calingae by Pliny would seem to show that the
three Kalingas were known as early as the time
of Megasthenés, from whom Pliny has chiefly
copied his Indian Geography. The name must
therefore be older than the Phallic worship of
Mahadéva in Southern India.” Caldwell observes
(Dravid. Grum., Introd., p. 32) that though
Trilingon is said to be on the Ganges, it may
have been considerably to the south of it, and on
the Godavari, which was always regarded by
the Hindus as a branch of the Ganges, and is
mythologically identical with it. The Andhras
and Kalingas, the two ancient divisions of the
Telugu people are represented by the Greeks as
Gangetic nations. It may be taken as certain that
Triglyphon, Trilinga or Modogalinga was identical
with Telingana or Trilingam, which signifies the
country of the three limgas. 'The Telugu name and
language are fixed by Pliny and Ptolemy as near
the mouths of the Ganges or between the Ganges
and the Godavari. Modo or Modoga is equivalent
to midu of modern Telugu. It ‘‘means three.”
Yule again places Trilingon on the left bank of
the Brahmaputra, identifying it with Tripura
(Tippera), a town in the district of the same
name, 48 miles E.S.E. of Dhakka,
Rhingibéri:—Saint-Martin and Yule, as we
have seen, place Rangémati ou the Brahmaputra
at Udipur. Wilford, however, had placed it near
Chitagaon, and identified it with Ptolemy’s Rhing-
gibéri. ‘‘ Ptolemy,” he says (Astat. Res., vol. XIV,
p 489); “has placed the source of the Dorias”
(which in Wilford’s opinion is the Dumura or
Dumriya, called in the lower part of its course the

236

Karmaphuli) “in some country to the south of
Salhata or Silhet, and he mentions two towns on
its banks: Pandassa in the upper part of its course,
but unknown; in. the lower part Rhingibéri, now
Rangaémati near Chatgav (Chitagaon), and Reang
is the name of the country on its banks. On
the lesser Dumurda, the river Chingri of the
Bengal Atlas, and near its source, is a town called
there Reang. Rangimati and Rang4-bati, to be
pronounced Rangabari, imply nearly the same
thing.”

Tomara was no doubt a place belonging to
the Zamirai or Tamarai, who were located inland
from Kirrhadia, and inhabited the Garo Hills.

Mareoura or Malthoura:—In Yule’s map this
metropolis is located, but doubtfully, to the west
of Tougma (Tagaun) near the western bank of
the Khyendwen, the largest confluent of the
Trawadi.

Bareukora (or Bareuathra) is in Yule’s map
identified with Rama, a place in the district of
Chitagaon, from which it is 68 miles distant to
the S.S.E. Wilford identified it with Phalgun,
another name for which, according to the Kshetra
Samasa was Pharuigara, and this he took to be
Ptolemy’s Bareukora. Phalgun he explains to be
the Palong of the maps.

Kokkonagara:—Yulesuggestsforthis Pegu.
“It appears,’ he says, “from Térandtha’s his-
tory of Buddhism (ch. xxxix.) that the Indo-
Chinese countries were in old times known
collectively as Koki. In a Ceylonese account of
an expedition against Raimaniyd, supposed to be
Pegnu, the army captures the city of Ukkaka, and

236

in it the Lord of Raémaniyé. Kokkonagara
again, is perhaps the Kakula of Ibn Batuta,
which was certainly a city on the Gulf of Siam,
and probably an ancient foundation from Kalinga,
called after Sri-k&kola there.”

Tharra:—The same authority identifies this
with Tharawati at the head of the delta of the
Irawadi. It is one of the divisions of the Pro-
vince of Pegu.

Ptolemy’s description of Transgangetic India now
closes with the Islands.

26. The islands of the division of India
we have been describing are said to be these:
Bazakata ..cssccecseeceeseese 149° 30% = 9° 30’
[Khaliné............ saiseinnens ». 146° 9° 207]

In this island some say there is found in
abundance the murex shell-fish («éyAos) and
that the inhabitants go naked, and are called
Aginnatal.

27. There are three islands called Sindal,
inhabited by Cannibals, of which the centre
lies in...... scdavemetwieas 152° 8° 40’ S
Agathou daimonos .,. 145° 15’ on the equator.

28, Agroup of i islands, theBarousai,
whose inhabitants are said to be cannibals, and
the centre of which lies in 152° 20’ 5° 20’ 8.
A group of three islands, the Sabadeibai,
inhabited by cannibals, of which the centre lies
TI? ao caaenamemetes Samer tievecaaatays 160° 8° 30’ S

Bazakata may perhaps be the island of
Cheduba, as Wilford has suggested. Lassen

237

takes it to be an island at the mouth of the
Bassein river, near Cape Negrais, called Diamond
Island. Its inhabitants are called by Ptolemy
the Aginnatai, and represented as going naked.
Lassen, for Aginnatai would therefore read Apin-
natai, “because apinaddha in Sanskrit means
unclothed ;” but aypinaddha means ‘tied on,’
clothed. Yule thinks it may perhaps be the greater
of the two And&éman islands. He says (Proc.
Roy. Geog. Soc. vol. IV, 1882, p. 654); “ Pro-
ceeding further the (Greek) navigator reaches
the city of Koli or Kolis, leaving behind him the
island of Bazakota, ‘Good Fortune’ (’Aya@éu
Aaipovos) and the group of the Barusze. Here, at
Koli, which I take to be a part of the Malay
peninsula, the course of the first century Greek,
and of the ninth century Arab, come together.”
Bazakota and the Island of Good Fortune may be
taken as the Great and the Little Andaman re-
spectively. The Arab relation mentions in an
unconnected notice an island called Malhan
between Serendib and Kalah, t.e., between Ceylon
and the Malay Peninsula, which was inhabited
by black and naked cannibals. ‘‘ This may be
another indication of the Andaman group, and
the name may have been taken from Ptolemy’s
Maniolae, which in his map occupy the position
in question.” And again: “ Still further out of
the way (than the Andamans) and difficult of access
was a region of mountains containing mines of
silver. The landmarks (of the Arab navigator)
to reach these was a mountain called Alkhushnami
(‘the Auspicious’). ‘This land of silver mines is
both by position and by this description identified

238

with the Argyré of Ptolemy. As no silver is
known to exist in that region (Arakan) it seems
probable that the Arab indications to that effect
were adopted from the Ptolemaic charts. And
this lends me to suggest that the Jibal Khush-
nimi also was but a translation of the Ayaé@éu
daisovos vagos, or isle of Good Fortune, in those
maps, whilst 1 have thought also that the name
Andéiman might have been adopted from a tran-
script of the same name in Greek as Ay. daipov.”

Khaliné in Yule’s map is read as Saline,
and identified with the Island of Salang, close to
the coast in the latitude of the Nikobar Islands.

The Sindai Islands are placed by Ptolemy
about as far south as his island of Iabadios (Java)
but many degrees west of them. Lassen says (Ind.
Alt., vol. III, pp. 250-1) that the northmost of the
three islands must be Pulo-Rapat, on the coast of
Sumatra, the middle one the more southern, Pulo
Pangor, and theisland of Agatho-Daimon, one of
the Salat Mankala group. The name of Sindai
might imply, he thinks, that Indian traders had
formed a settlement there. He seems to have
regarded the Island of Agatho-Daimon as belonging
to the Sindai group, but this does not appear to me
to be sanctioned by the text. Yule says: “‘ Possibly
Sundar-Fulat, in which the latter word seems to
bean Arabized plural of the Malay Pulo ‘island’ is
also to be traced in Sindae Insulae, but I have
not adopted this in the map.”

The Barousai Islands:—* The (Arab) na-
vigators,” says Yule in his notes already referred
to, ‘“‘ crossing the sea of Horkand with the west
monsoon, made land at the islands of Lanja-Lanka,

239

or Lika-Balds, where the naked inhabitants came
off in their canoes bringing ambergris and cocoa-
nuts for barter, a description which with the posi-
tion identifies these islands with the Nikobars,
Nekaveram of Marco Polo, Laka-Véram of
Rashidu’d-din, and, I can hardly hesitate to say,
with the Barusae Islands of Ptolemy.”

Sabadeibai Islands:—The latter part of
this name represents the Sanskrit dwipa, ‘an
island.’ The three islands of this name are pro-
bably those lying east from the more southern
parts of Sumatra.

29, The island of labadios (or Sabadios)
which means the island of Barley. It is said
to be of extraordinary fertility, and to produce
very much gold, and to have its capital called
Argyr6é(Silver-town) in the extreme west of it.
TG CGAM: cedisiendenarddesqncieres 167° 8° 30’ S.
and the eastern limit lies in ...169° 8° 10'S.

30. The Islands of the Satyrs, three in num-
ber, of which the centre is in 171° 2°30’ S.
The inhabitants are said to have tails like
those with which Satyrs are depicted.

31. There are said to be also ten other
islands forming a continuous group called
Maniolai, from which ships fastened with
iron nails are said to be unable to move away,
(perhaps on account of the magnetic iron in
the islands) and hence they are built with
wooden bolts. The inhabitants are called
Maniolai, and are reputed to be cannibals,

The island of Tabadios:—Yava, the first part

240

of this name, is the Sanskrit word for ‘ barley,’ and
the second part Jike detba, diba, diva, and div or
diu, represents dvtpa, ‘an island.’ We have here
therefore the Island of Java, which answers in
most respects to Ptolemy’s description of it. The
following note regarding it I take from Bunbury’s
History of Ancient Geography (pp. 643-4): ‘The
name of Java has certainly some resemblance with
Iabadius, supposing that to be the correct form
of the name, and, what is of more consequence,
Ptolemy adds that it signifies ‘the island of
barley,’ whichis really the meaning of the name of
Java. The position in latitude assigned by him
to the island in question (85 degrees of south
latitude) also agrees very well with that of Java:
but his geographical notions of these countries
are in general so vague and erroneous that little
or no value can be attached to this coincidence.
On the other hand, the abundance of gold
would suit well with Sumatra; which has
always been noted on that account, while there ts
little or no gold found in Java. The metropolis
at its western extremity would thus correspond
with Achin, a place that must always have been
one of the principal cities of the island. In
either case he had a very imperfect idea of its
size, assigning it a length of only about 100 Geog.
miles, while Java is 9° or 540 G. miles in length,
and Sumatra more than 900 G. miles. It seems
not improbable that in this case, as in several
others, he mixed up particulars which really refer -
red to the two different islands, and applied them
to one only: but it is strange that if he had any
information concerning such islands as Sumatra

241

and Java, he should have no notion that they
were of very large size, at the same time that
he had such greatly exaggerated ideas of the
dimensions of Ceylon.’? Mannert took Iabadios
to be the small island of Banka on the 8.E.
of Sumatra. For the application of thename of
Java to the Island of Sumatra, see Yule’s Marco
Polo, vol. II, p. 266, note 1.

Regarding the Islands of the Satyrs, Lassen says
(Ind. Alt., vol. III, p. 252): The three islands, called
after the Satyrs, mark the extreme limits of the
knowledge attained by Ptolemy of the Indian Archi-
pelago. The inhabitants were called Satyrs because,
according to the fabulous accounts of mariners, they
had tails like the demi-gods of that name in Greek
mythology. Two of these must be Madura and
Bali, the largest islands on thenorth and east coasts
of Java, and of which the first figures prominently
in the oldest legends of Java; the second, on the
contrary, not till later times. The third island is
probably Lombok, lying near Bali in the east. A
writer in Smith’s Dictionary of Classical Geography
thinks these islands were perhaps the Anamba
group, and the Satyrs who inhabited them apes
resembling men. Yule says in the notes :—‘‘ San-
dar-Fulat we cannot hesitate to identify with Pulo
Condor, Marco Polo’s Sondur and Condur. These
may also be the Satyrs’ islands of Ptolemy, but
they may be his Sindai, for he has a Sinda city
on the coast close to this position, though his
Sindai islands are dropped far way. But it
would not be difficult to show that Ptolemy’s
islands have been located almost at random, or as
from a pepper-castor.”

31 a

242

Ptolemy locates the Maniolai. Islands, of
which he reckons ten, about 10 degrees eastward
from Ceylon. There is no such group however
to be found in that position, or near it, and we
may safely conclude that the Maniolai isles are
as mythical as the magnetic rocks they were
said to contain. In an account of India, written
at the close of the 4th or beginning of the 5th
century, at the request either of Palladius or
of Lausius, to whom Palladius inscribed his
Historia Lausiaca, mention is made of these
rocks: “ At Muziris,” says Priaulx, in his notice
of this account* “our traveller stayed some time,
and occupied himself in studying the soil and
climate of the place and the customs and manners
of its inhabitants. He also made enquiries about
Ceylon, and the best mode of getting there, but
did not care to undertake the voyage when he
heard of the dangers of the Sinhalese channel,
of the thousand isles, the Maniolai which impede
its navigation, and the loadstone rocks which
bring disaster and wreck on all iron-bound ships.”
And Masidi, who had traversed this sea, says that
ships sailing on it were not fastened with iron
nails, its waters so wasted them. (The Indian
Travels of Apollonius of Tyana, §c., p. 197).
After Ptolemy’s time a different position was
now and again assigned to these rocks, the direc-
tion in which they were moved being more and
more to westward. Priaulx (p. 247), uses this

31 Wilford (As. Res. vol. XIV, pp. 429-30), gives the fable
regarding these rocks from the Chaturvar ga Chintdmant,
and identifies them with those near Parindra or the lion's
place in the lion’s mouth or Straits of Singapur.

243

as an argument in support of his contention that
the Roman traffic in the eastern seas gradually
declined after 273 A.D., and finally disappeared.
How, otherwise, he asks, can we account for the
fact that the loadstone rocks, those myths of
Roman geography, which, in Ptolemy’s time, the
flourishing days of Roman commerce, lay some
degrees castward of Ceylon, appear A.D. 400
barring its western approach, and A.D. 560 have
advanced up tothe very mouth of the Arabian Gulf.
But on the Terrestrial Globe of Martin Behem,
Nuremberg A.D. 1492, they are called Manillas,
and are placed immediately to the north of Java
Major. Aristotle speaks of a magnetic mountain
on the coast of India, and Pliny repeats the story.
Klaproth states that the ancient Chinese authors
also speak of magnetic mountains in the southern
sea on the coasts of Tonquin and Cochin-China,
and allege regarding them that if foreign ships
which are bound with plates of iron approach
them, such ships are there detained, and can in no
case pass these places. (Tennant’s Ceylon, vol. I,
p.444n.) The origin of the fable, which represents
the magnetic rocks as fatal to vessels fastened with
iron nails, is to be traced to the peculiar mode in
which the Ceylonese and Malays have at all times
constructed their boats and canoes, these being
put together without the use of iron nails; the
planks instead being secured by wooden bolts,
and stitched together with cords spun from the
fibre of the cocoanut. ‘‘The Third Calender,’
in the Arabian Nights Eutertatwinent, gives a lively
account of his shipwreck upon the Loadstone
Mountain, which he tells us was entircly covered

244

towards the sea with the nails that belonged
to the immense number of ships which it had
destroyed.
CaP. 3.
POSITION OF THE SINAI.
[llth Map of Asia.]

1. The Sinaiare bounded on the north by
the part of Sériké already indicated, on the
east and south by the unknown land, on the
west by India beyond the Ganges, along the line
defined as far as the Great Gulf and by the Great
Gulf itself, and the parts immediately adjacent
thereto, and by the Wild Beast Gulf, and by
that frontier of the Sinai around which are
placed the [khthyophagoi Aithiopes,
according to the following outline :—

2. After the boundary of the Gulf on the
side of India the mouth of
the river Aspithra ............ 170° 16°
Sources of the river on the

eastern side of the Séman-

thinos range ......cecseese 180° 26°
Bramma, & tOWN.......eesseres 177° 12° 30’
The mouth of the river

Am bastes pics oc iwcisssicceeses 176° 10°
The sources of the river...... 179° 30’ 15°
Rhabana, a town.......ee.08... 177° 8° 30’
Mouth of the river Sainos ... 176° 20’ ~=6° 30’
The Southern Cape ......... 175° 15’ 4°

The head of Wild Beast Gulf 176° 2

245

The Cape of Satyrs ....... ». 175° on the line

Gulf of the Sinai’? ............ 178° 2° 20’
3. Around the Gulf of the Sinai dwell the

fish-eating Aithiopians.

Mouth of the river Kot-

DIATIS coccwexutantudasweceevos War 2g fae S.
Sources of the river ...... 180° 40% = 2° S.
Where it falls into the

river Sainos..........0.... 180° on the line.
Kattigara, the port of the

DLMAD a cduacscehotereracebene 177° 8° 30'S.

4, The most northern parts are possessed
by the Sémanthinoi, whoare situated above
the range that bears their name. Below them,
and below the range are the Akadrai, after
whomarethe As pit hraji, then along the Great
Gulf the Ambastaji, and around the gulfs
immediately adjoining the Ikhthyophagoi
Sinai.

5. The interior towns of the Sinai are
named thus :— "

ARAOTA Sickines biawkel views 178° 20’ 21° 15/

ASPICHY:. cae sctece piucenweourns 175° 16°

Kokkonagara .........s0000 179° 50% 2°,

Sarata ....... Gd nawecauewecine’ 180° 30° 4° §,
6. And the Metropolis

Sinai or Thinai ............ 180° 40’ 3° -—sS..

which they say has neither brazen walls nor
anything else worthy of note. It is encompas-
sed on the side of Kattigara towards the west by

32 Latin Translator.

246

the wnknown land, which encircles the Green
Sea as far as Cape Prason, from which begins,
as has been said, the Gulf of the Batrakheian
Sea, connecting the land with Cape Rhapton,
and the southern parts of Azania.

It has been pointed out how egregiously Ptolemy
misconceived the configuration of the coast of Asia
beyond the Great Gulf, making it run southward
and then turn westward, and proceed in that direc-
tion till it reached the coast of Africa below the
latitude of Zanzibar. The position, therefore of
the places he names, cannot be determined with
any certainty. By the Wild Beast Gulf may per-
haps be meant the Gulf of Tonquin, and by the Gulf
of the Sinai that part of the Chinese Sea which is
beyond Hai-nan Island. The river Kottiaris
may perhaps be the river of Canton. Thinai,
or Sinai, may have been Nankin, or better perhaps
Si-gnan-fu, in the province of Shen-si, called by
Marco Polo, by whom it was visited, Ken-jan-fu.
“Tt was probably,” says Yule (Marco Polo, vol. IT,
p. 21) “ the most celebrated city in Chinese history
and the capital of several of the most potent dynas-
ties. In the days of its greatest fame it was called
Chaggan.” It appears to have been an ancient
tradition that the city was surrounded by brazen
walls, but this Ptolemy regarded as a mere fable.
The author of the Periplés (c. 64), has the following
notice of the place :—‘ There lies somewhere in the
interior of Thina,a very great city, from which
silk, either raw or spun or woven into cloth is
carried overland to Barygaza through Baktria or
by the Ganges to Limyriké . . . Its situation is

247

under the Lesser Bear.’’ Ptolemy has placed it 3
degrees south of the equator !!

Cap. -h.
PosiTION oF THE ISLAND OF TAPROBANE.
[Map of Asia 12.]

1. Opposite Cape Kéry, which is in India,
is the projecting point of the Island of Ta pro-
bané, which was called formerly Simoan-
ndou, and now Saliké. The inhabitants
are commonly called Salai. Their heads are
quite encircled with long luxuriant locks, like
those of women, The country produces rice,
honey, ginger, beryl, hyacinth®® and has mines
of every sort—of gold and of silver and other
metals. It breeds at the same time elephants
and tigers, |

2. The point already referred to as lying
opposite to Kory is called North Cape
(Boreion Akron) and lies ...... 126° = 12° 80’

3. The descriptive outline of the rest of the

island is as follows :—
After the North Cape which

is situated IM ...... eee cece ee. 126° 12° 30’
comes Cape Galiba....... eeeee 124° 11° 30’
Margana, a town ............ 123° 30’ 10° 20’

33 In one of the templcs, says Kosmos, is tho great
hyacinth, as large as a pinc-cone, the colour of fire and
flashing from a distance, especially when catching the
beams of the sun, a matchless sight.

Tégana, a town .......eeseeeee 123° 20’ 8° 50’
Anarismoundon, a cape...... 122° 7° 457
Mouth of the River Soana.,. 122° 20’ 6° 15’
Sources of the river ......... 124° 30’ 3°
Sindokanda, a town ......... 122° 5°
Haven of Priapis ..... ...... 122° 3° 40’

A, Anoubingara .........6- 121° 2° 40’
Headland of Zeus .......0..6- 120° 30’ 1°
Prasédés Bay .......0..esse 0 121° Ne
Noubartha, a town .......6 121°40’ onthe Line
Mouth of the river Azanos... 123° 20 1° S.
The sources of the river...... 126° 1° N.
Odbka, a tOWN...... ce ceceeeees 123° O° 3.
Orneén, (Birds’ Point) a

headland) csscacsesseticxness «- 125° 2° 30’ S.

5. Dagana, a town
sacred to the Moon ...... 126° 2° Ss.
Korkobara, atown ...... 127° 20" == 2° 20° S:
Cape of Dionysos ......... 130° 1° 30’ S.
Kétaion Cape .....s.essee 132° 30’ =. 2° 20’ S.
Mouth of the river

Barak6sS .ec.csesoseccsreoe 131° 30% 1° ON.
Sources of the river ...... 128° 2° N.
Bokana, @ tOWN ....e.ce-e. 131° 1° 20’N.
The haven of Mardos

or Mardoulamné ...... 131° 2° 20’ N.

6, Abaratha, a town... 131° 3° 15’ N.
Haven of the Sun (Heliou

WOM) 5 sieves tunes eee a 130° 4°
Great Coast (Aigialos

MEPAB) <asiisateconctantes 130° 4° 20°

249

Prokouri, a town ......... 131° 5° 20’
The haven of Rizala...... 180° 20’ 6° 30’
Oxeia, a headland ......... 130° 7° 30’
Mouth of the riverGangés 129° 7° 20°
The sources of the river... 127° 7° 15’
Spatana Haven.,........«. 129° 8°
7. Nagadiba or Naga~-

Gina, a tOWN ....ee...s0ee0e 129° &° 30°
Pati Bay ....0+...e0 eeteae 128° 30’ = 9° 30’
Anoubingara, a town...... 128° 20° = 9° 40°
Modouttou, a mart......... 128° 11° 20’

Mouth of the river Phasis 127° 11° 20’
The sources of the river... 126° ‘8°
Talakéry (or Aakoté,) a

Mart ....0..escevseveeevee 126° 20% 11° 20°
After which the North Cape.

8. The notable mountains of the island are
those called Galiba, from which flow the
Phasis and the Ganges, and that called Malaia,
from which flow the Soanas and the Azanos
and the Barakés, and at the base of this range,
towards the sea, are the feeding grounds of the
elephants.

9. The most northern parts of the Island are
possessed by the GaliboiandtheMoudout-
toi, and below these the Anourogrammoi
and the Nagadiboi, and below the Anouro-
grammoi the Soanoi, and below the Nagadibot
the Sennoi, and below these the Sando-
kandai, towards the west, and below these
towards the feeding grounds of the elephants

32 G

250

the Boumasanoi, and the T arakhoi, whe
are towards the east, below whom are the:
Békanoi and Diordouloi, and furthess
south the Rhogandanoi, and the Nagel
rol,

10. The inland towns in the island are
these :—
Anourogrammon, the

royal residence ...... 124° 10’ 8° 40°
Maagrammon, the me-

tropolis:. wcssecccievssis 127° 7° 20%
Adeisamon ....e.ceeresees 129° 5°
Podoukeé . 50.05.00 ere 124° 3° 40°
Oulispada ...cccccererees 126° 20’ 4.0’
Nakadouba ....... ede Seas 128° 30’ on the Line.

11. In front of Taprobané lies a group of
islands which they say nymber 1378. Those
whose names are mentioned are the following :—
Ouangalia (or Ouangana) 120°15’ 11° 20’
Kanathra: .........sece0-e. 221° 40% EL° 15’

Aigidibncoccssessiicencevss LIC 8° 30°
Ornéon: ...... sue bake ibe k19° 8° 30°
Monakhé,,......csecseseevee 116° 4° 15/
Amminé.,....... sestecevaue ele 4° 30’
12. Karkos.......2.....6. 118° 40’ S,
PHilCKOS fccscenssaesceosecnes 116° 30’ 2° 40’ S.
Hiréné ........cccccecereveesee 120° 2°30" 8,
Kalandadroua ..........-- 121° 5° 30’ 8.
Arana .,.cesccceosseseeeeee 125° 4° 20’ 8.
Basses sichocccaseseae aces 126° 6° 30’ S:

Balaka......cscvssseens evsems.. E29? 5° 30’ S..

Waa coe dciendechecsetesce da” 4° CS,

Goumara sisoc.csccesevoseees 133° 1° 40’ S.
13. Zaba....... ee eee doo on the Line.
Fibala ......... phir vaeens 135° 4°15’ N,
Nagadi bain ccesveiecsiseaaons 135° 8° 30’
SOUSOUALA 2.4... ceeseeeeese io AGOe 11° 15’

_ 14, Let such then be the mode of describing
an detail the complete circuit of all the pro-
vinces and satrapies of the known world, and
since we indicated in the outset of this com-
pendium how the known portion of the earth
should be delineated both on the sphere and in
a projection on a plane surface exactly in the
same manner and proportion as what is traced
on the solid sphere, and since it is convenient
to accompany such descriptions of the world
with a summary sketch, exhibiting the whole
in one comprehensive view, let me now there-
fore give such a sketch with due observance of
the proper proportion.

This island of Taprobané has changed its
name with notable frequency. In the Rémdyana
and other Sanskrit werks it is ealled LankAd, but
this was an appellation unknown to the Greeks.
They called it at first Antichthonos, being under
the belief that it was a region belonging to the
opposite portion of the werld (Pliny, lib. VI,-c. xxii).
In the time of Alexander, when its situation was
better understeod, it was called Taprobané. Me-
gasthenés mentions it under this name, and re-
marks that it was divided (into two) by a river, that
ats inhabitants were called Palaeogoni and that it

252

produced more gold and pearls of large size than
India. From our author we learn that the old name
of the island was Simoundou, and that Taprobané,
its next name, was obsolete in his time, beimg re-
placed by Saliké. The author of the Periplis states,
on the other hand, that Taprobané was the old name
of the island, and that in his time # was called
Palai Simoundou. The section of his work however
in which this statement occurs (§ 61) is allowed
to be hopelessly corrupt. According to Pliny,
Palaesimundus was the name of the capital town,
and also of the river on whose banks it stood. How
long the island continued to be called Saliké does
not appear, but it was subsequently known under
such names as Serendivus, Sirlediba, Serendib,
Zeilan, and Sailan, from which the transition is
easy to the name which it now bears, Ceylon.
With regard to the origin or derivation of the
majority of these names the most competent
scholars have been divided in their opinions. Ac-
cording to Lassen the term Palaiogonoi was select-
ed by Megasthenés to designate the inhabitants
of the island, as it conveyed the idea entertained
of them by the Indians that they were Rakshasas,
or giants, ‘the sons of the progenitors of the
world.’ To this it may be objected that Megas-
thenés did not intend by the term to describe the
inhabitants, but merely togive the name by which
they were known, which was different from that
of the island. Schwanbeck again suggested that
the term might be a transliteration of Péli-Jands,
a Sanskrit compound, which he took to mean
‘‘ men of the sacred doctrine” (Ind. Ant., vol. VI,
p. 129, n.) But, as Priaulx has pointed out (Apollon.

_

293

of Tyana, p. 110), this is an appellation which
could scarcely have been given to others than
learned votaries of Buddhism, and which could
scarcely be applicable to a people who were not
even Buddhist till the reign of Asdka, who was
subsequent to Chandragupta, at whose court
Megasthenés acquired his knowledge of India.
Besides, it has been pointed out by Goldstiicker (l.c.
n. 59} that Pali has not the meaning here attri-
buted to it. He adds that the nearest approach
he could find to Palaiogonoi is—pdra ‘ on the other
side of the river’ and jands ‘a people’; Parajanas,
therefore, ‘a people on the other side of the river.’
‘Tennent, in conclusion, takes the word to be a
Hellenized form of Pali-putra, ‘the sons of the
Pali,’ the first Prasian colonists of the island. A
satisfactory explanation of Palai-Simoundou
has not yet been hit on. That given by Lassen,
P4li-Simanta, or Head of the Sacred Law, has been
discredited. We come now to Taprobané.
This is generally regarded as a transliteration of
Tamraparni, the name which Vijaya, who,
according to tradition, led the first Indian colony
into Ceylon, gave to the place where he first landed,
and which name was afterwards extended to the
whole island. It is also the name of a river in
Tinneveli, and it has, in consequence, been sup-
posed that the colonists, already referred to, had
been, for some time, settled on its banks before
they removed to Ceylon. The word means ‘ Copper-
coloured leaf.’ Its Pali form is Tambapanni (see
Ind. Ant., Vol. XIII, pp. 33f.) and is found, as
has been before noticed, in the inscription of
Asoka on the Girnar rock, Another name, applied

254

to it by Brahmanical writers, is Dwipa-Ravana,
t.e., ‘the island of Ravana, whence perhaps Tapro-
bané.” Saliké, Serendivas, and other sub-
sequent names, are all considered to be connected
etymologically with Simhala (colloquially Silam),
the Pali form of Sthala, a derivative from simha,
‘a lion,’ 2.e. ‘a hero’—the hero Vijaya. According
to a different view these names are to be referred
to the Javanese sela, ‘a precious stone,’ but this
explanation is rejected by Yule (Marco Polo, vol. II,
p- 296, n. 6). For Saliké, Tennent suggests an
Egyptian origm, Siela-keh, 7.e., ‘the land of Siela.’

Little more was known in the west respecting the
island beyond what Megasthenés had communicat-
ed until the reign of the Emperor Claudius, when
an embassy was sent to Rome by the Sinhalese
monarch, who had received such astonishing
accounts of the power and justice of the Roman
people that he became desirous of entering into
alliance withthem. He had derived his knowledge
of them from a castaway upon his island, the freed-
man of a Roman called Annius Plocamus. The
embassy consisted of 4 members, of whom the
chief was called Rachia, an appellation from which
we may infer that he held the rank of a Raja.
They gave an interesting, if not a very accurate,
account of their country, which has been preserved.
by Pliny (Nat. Hist.lib. VI). Their friendly visit,
operating conjointly with the discovery of the
quick passage to and from the East by means of
the monsoon, gave a great impetus to commercial
enterprise, and the rich marts, to which access had
thus been opened, soon began to be frequented by
the galleys of the West. Ptolemy, living in Alexan-

255

dria, the great entrepot in those days of the Easterm
traffic, very probably acquired from traders arriv-
ing from Ceylon, his knowledge coneerning it,
which is both wonderfully copious, and at the
same time, fairly aceurate, if we exeept his views
of its magnitude, which like all his predecessors he
vastly over-estimated. On the other hand, he has
the merit of having determined properly its gene-
ral form and outline, as well as its actual position
with reference to the adjoining continent, points on
which the most vague and erroneous notions had
prevailed up to his time, the author of the Periplis
for instance describmg the island as extending so far
westward that it almost adjoined Azania in Africa.
The actual position of Ceylon is between 5° 55/
and 9° 51’ N. lat., and 79° 42’ and 81° 55’ EB, long.
Its extreme length from north to south is 2713
miles, its greatest width 137} miles, and its area
about one-sixth smaller than that of Ireland.
Ptolemy however made it extend through no less
than 15 degrees of latitude and 12 of longitude.
He thus brought it down more than two degrees
south of the equator, while he carried its north-
ern extremity up to 123° N. lat., nearly 3 degrees
north of its true position. He has thus represented
it as being 20 times larger than it really is.
This extravagant over-estimate, which had its
origin in the Mythological Geography of the Indian
Brahmans, and which was adopted by the islanders
themselves, as well as by the Greeks, was shared
also by the Arab geographers Mast’di, Idrisi, and
Abuw’1-fida, and by such writers as Marco Polo. In
consequence of these misrepresentations it came
to be questioned at one time whether Ceylon or

256

Sumatra was the Taprobané of the Greeks, and
Kant undertook to prove that it was Madagascar
(Tennent’s Ceylon, vol. I, p. 10 and n.). Ptolemy
has so far departed from his usual practice that
he gives some particulars respecting it, which
lie out of the sphere of Geography, strictly so
called. He is mistaken in stating that the tiger
is found in Ceylon, but he has not fallen into
error on any other point which he has noticed.
It ‘may be remarked that the natives still wear
their hair in the effeminate manner which he has
noticed. In describing the island geographically
he begins at its northern extremity, proceeds
southward down the western coast, and returns
along the east coast to Point Pedro. ‘‘ In his map
he has laid down the position of eight promon-
tories, the mouths of five rivers and four bays and
harbours, and in the interior he had ascertained
that there were thirteen provincial divisions, and
nineteen towns, besides two emporia on the coast,
five great estuaries, which he terms lakes, two
bays and two chains of mountains, one of them
surrounding Adam’s Peak, which he designates
as Malaia, the name by which the hills that
environ it are known in the Mahawdnso.” Ten-
nent, from whom the foregoing summary has been
quoted, observes in a foot-note (vol. I, p. 535) that
Ptolemy distinguishes those indentations in the
coast which he describes as bays (xéAmos) from the
estuaries, to which he gives the epithet of lakes,
(Acunv) ;** of the former he particularises two, Pati

** Tennent here seems to have confounded Arpyy, a

haven or creek, with Aiuyn, @ lake. The words are,
however, etymologically connected.

257

and Prasddés, the position of which would nearly
correspond with the Bay of Trinkonamalai and the
harbour of Colombo—of the latter he enumerates
five, and from their position they seem to repre-
sent the peculiar estuaries formed by the con-
joint influence of the rivers and the current, and
known to the Arabs by the name of “ gobbs.”’

Ceylon is watered by numerous streams, some
of which are of considerable size. The mest
important is the Mahaweliganga, which has its
sources in the vicinity of Adam’s Peak, and which,
after separating into several branches, enters the
ocean near Trinkénamualai. Ptolemy calls it the
Ganges. He mentions four other rivers, the Soana,
Azanos, Barakés and Phasis, which Tennent
identifies with the Dedera-Oya, the Bentote, the
Kambukgam and the Kangarayen respectively.
Lassen, however (Ind. Alt., vol. III, p. 21),
identifies the Azanos with the Kalaganga which
enters the sea a little farther north than the
river of Bentote, and is a larger stream.

The mountains named by Ptolemy are the
Galiba in the north-west of the island, and the
Malaia, by which he designates the mountain
groups which occupy the interior of the island
towards the south. He has correctly located the
plains or feeding grounds of the elephants to the
south-east of these mountains; malai is the
Tamil word for ‘ mountain.”

The places which he has named along the coast
and in the interior have been identified, though
in most cases doubtfully, by Tennent in his map
of Taprobané according to Ptolemy and Pliny,
in vol, I. of his work, as follows :—

33 a

258

On the West Coast beginning from the north :—

Margana with Mantote.

Iégana with Aripo.

Anarismoundou Cape with :Kudramali Point,
but Mannert with Kalpantyn (further south).

Sindo Kanda with Chilau (Chilau from Sala-
bhana—the Diving, 7. e. Pearl Fishery.)

Port of Priapis® with Negombo.

Cape of Zeus at Colombo.

Prasédés Bay, with Colombo Bay.

Noubartha with Barberyn.

Odoka with Hikkode.

Cape Ornedn (of Birds) with Point de Galle.
On the South Coast :—

Dagana with Dondra Head.

Korkobara with Tangalle.
On the East Coast:

Cape of Dionysos, with Hambangtote.

Cape Kétaion (Whale cape) with Elephant Rock:
(Bokana Yule identifies with Kambugam).

Haven of Mardos with Arukgam Bay.

Abaratha with Karativoe (but Yule with Apar-
atote, which is better).

Haven of the Sun with Batticalao.

Rizala Haven with Vendeloos Bay.

Oxeia Cape (Sharp point) with Foul Point.

Spatana Haven with an indentation in Trin-
konamalai Bay.

Nagadiba or Nagadina witha site near the Bay.

Pati Bay with Trinkénamalai Bay.

Anoubingara with Kuchiavelli.

Modouttou with Kokelay.

35 This was no doubt a name given by the Greeks.

259

On the North Coast :—

Mouth of the Phasis.

Talakéry or Aakoté, with Tondi Manaar. Yule
places both Nagadiba and Modouttou on the
north-west coast, identifying the latter with
Mantote.

With respect to places in the interior of the
island Tennent says (vol. I, p. 586, n. 2): “ His.
(Ptolemy’s) Maagrammon would appear on a
first glance to be Mahaigam, but as he calls it the
metropolis, and places it beside the great river, it
is evidently Bintenne, whose ancient name was
« Mahayangana” or “ Mahdwelligam.” His Anu-
rogrammum, which he calls Bacitewv “the
royal residence,” is obviously Anuradhapura, the
city founded by Anuradha 500 years before
Ptolemy (Mahawdnso, pp. 50-65). The province
of the Moudouttoi in Ptolemy’s list has a close
resemblance in name, though not in position, to
Mantote; the people of Reyagamkorle still
occupy the country assigned by him to the
Rhogandanoi—his Nagadiboiare identical
with the Nagadiva of the Mahawdinso; and the
‘islet to which he has given the name of Bassa,
occupies nearly the position of the Basses, which it
has been the custom to believe were so-called by
the Portuguese,—‘“ Baxos” or ‘‘ Baixos” “Sunken
Rocks.” The Rhogandanoi were located in
the south-west of the island. The sea, which
stretched thence towards Malaka, appears to have
at one time borne their name, as it was called by
the Arab navigators “the sea of Horkand.” The
group of islands lying before Ceylon is no doubt
that of the Maldives.

260

KLAUDIOS PTOLEMY’S GEOGRAPHY
OF CENTRAL ASTA.

Having now examined in detail the whole of
Ptolemy’s Indian Geography, I annex as a suitable
Appendix his description of the countries adjacent
to India. The reader will thus be presented with
his Geography im its entirety of Central and
South-Kastern: Asia. In the notes I have adverted
only to the more salient points.

Boox VI, Car. &%.
Posirlon oF HYRKANTA,
| Map of Asia, 7. |.

I. Hyrkawiats bonnded on the north by
that part of the Hyrkanian sea which extends
from the extreme point of the boundary lune
with Média as far as the mouth of the river
Oxes which lies in............ 100° 43° 5!

2. In which division vcceuy these towns :—
Saramanuncé, 2 towl.e..w.. ee Po k5% 40° 807

Mouth of the Maxéva......... 07° 20° 48° 30%
The sources of this river ... 98° - 38° 207
Mouth of the Sokauda ..... 97° 20% 42°

Mouth of the river Oxos ... 100° 43° 57

3. Ox the west by the part of Média al-
yeady mentioned as far as Mount Korénos [in
which part of Média is
Saramanne.,...... Ne lenit coastal h° BS -£0° 307]

+. onthe south by Parthia, along the
side of it deserihed as passing through the range
of Kordues, and ou the east by Margiané

261

through the mountainous region which connects
the extremtities referred to.

5. The mtaritinie ports of Hyrkania are
inhabited by the Maxérai, and the Asta-
b én oi and below the Maxérai by the Kh rén-
doi, after whom comes the country adjacent to
the Korénos range, Arsitis, and below the
Astabénoi is the country ealled Sira-
kéné,

6. The cities in the mtertor are said to be
these :—

Barangé ......... eeeueeiats seen ee 42°
ACVApSa .re.ccccccccsacserserase 98° 30’. 41° 30’
Kasapé.......cccecccessccsesseesee 99° 30% 40° 30’
Abarbina...... pence menusete, SOC! 40° 10’
Sorba ...c00.... sedbesiascacaivs . 98 40° 307
7. Sinaka ...... peestreaens 100° 39° 40’
AMALVOUSA caccecceesersesceeees 96° 39° 50%
Hyrkania, the metropolis.... 98° 50% 40°
Saké (or Salé)....... sacuseaee 94° 15% 39° 307
ASNIOUPUG oo. eeseeceeeee ian Ae OU 39" 30°
Maisoka (or Mausoka) ...... ag° 39° 30°
8, And an island in the
sca near it called Talka...... 95° 42°

The nawe of Hyrkania is preserved to this
day in that of Gurkan or Jorjan, a town lying to
the east of Asterébad. Its boundaries have
varied at different periods of history. Speaking
generally, it corresponds with the modern Mazan-
deran and Asterabad. Its northern frontier wag
formed by the Kaspian, which was sometimes called
after it—the Hyrkanian Sea. The river Oxos,

262

which is called by the natives on its banks the
Amu-darya, and by Persian writers the Jihun,
falls now into the Sea of Aral, but as we learn
from our author as well as from other ancient
writers it was in former times an affluent of the
Kaspian, a fact confirmed by modern explora-
tions. Mount Korénos was the eastern portion
of the lofty mountain chain called the Elburz,
which runs along the southern shores of the
Kaspian. The River Maxérais mentioned by
Pliny (lib. VI, c. xiv, sec. 18) who calls it the
Maxeras. It has been variously identitied, as with
the Tejin, the Gurgan, the Atrek and others.
The metropolis of Hyrkania is called by Ammia-
nus Marcellinus (c. xxiii, sec. 6) Hyrkana,
which is probably the Gurkan already mentioned.

Cap. 10.
Position or MARGIANE.
[Map of Asia 7.]

Margiané is bounded on the west by
Hyrkania, along the side which has been al-
ready traced, and on the north by a part of
Skythia extending from the mouths of the
river Oxos as far as the division towards
Baktriané, which hes in 103°—43°, and on
the south by part of Areia along the parallel
of latitude running from the boundary towards
Hyrkania and Parthia through the Sariphi
range, as far as the extreme point lying 109°—
39°, and on the east by Baktriané along
the mountainous region which connects the

263

said extremities. A considerable stream, the
Margos, flows through the country, and its
Sources He iN ..icecseeceevee eevee 105° 30°
while it falls into the Oxos in 102°. 48° 30’.

2. The parts of it towards the river Oxos
are possessed by the Der bikkai, called also
the Derkeboi, and below them the Massa-
getai, after whom the Parnoi and the
Diai, below whom occurs the desert of
Margiana, and more to the east than are
the Tapourol.

3. The cities of it are—

Arviaka ....... cicvaaeteusteaenene .- 103° 43°

Sina (or Séna),...ccece.esseeree 102° 30’ 42° 207
Arathac.csvierekc a dimtwieteen 103° 30’ 42° 30’
AUR AINE laren vusadwanhereeees 101° 20’ 41° 407
TaSOnion ......ccccecseececteeees 103° 30’ 41° 307

4. There unites with the River Margos,
another stream flowing from the Sariphi range

of which the sources lie...... 103° 39°
Pah tances eac eines Patiees oie ccc ax 102° 40° 507
Antiokheia Margiané......... 106° 40° 207
Gouriand ...... ceseeceueees ewww 1042 40°
Nisaia or Nigaia ......... veel OO” 39° 10’

“In early periods,” says Wilson(Ariana Antiqua,
p. 148), “Margiana seems to have been unknown
as a distinct province, and was, no doubt, in
part at least, comprised within the limits of Parthia.
In the days of the later geographers, it had
undergone the very reverse relation, and had, to
all appearance, extended its boundaries so as to

264

include great part of the original Parthia. It 1s
evident from Strabo’s notice of the latter (lib. XI,
c. ix) that there was left little of it except the
name; and in Ptolemy no part of Parthia appears
above the mountains.” Strabo says of it (lib. XI,
e. x) “Antiokhos Sotér admired its fertility, he
enclosed a circle of 1,500 stadia with a wall, and
founded a city, Antiokheia, The soil is well adapt-
ed to vines. They say that a vine stem has been
frequently seen there which would require two
men to girth it, and bunches of grapes two cubits
in size.” Pliny writes somewhat to the same
effect. He says (lib. VI, c. xvi): “Next comes
Margiané, noted for its sunny skies; it is the
only vine-bearing district in all these parts, and
it is shut in on all sides by pleasant hills. It
has a circuit of 1,500 stadia, and is difficult of
approach on account of sandy deserts, which
extend for 120 mules. It hes confronting a
tract of country in Parthia, in which Alexander
had built Alexandria, a city, which after its
destruction by the barbarians, Antiokhos, the son
of Seleucus, rebuilt on the same site. The river
Margus which amalgamates with the Zothale,
flows through its midst. It was named Syriana,
but Antiokhos preferred to have it called Antio-
kheia. It is 80 stadia in circumference. To this
place Orodes conducted the Romans who were
taken prisoners when Crassus was defeated.”
This ancient city is represented now by Merv.
The river Margus is that now called the Murgh-ab
or Meru-rid. It rises in the mountains of the
Hazaras (which are a spur of the Paropanisos and
the Sariphi montes of our author), and loses itself

265

in the sands about 50 miles north-west of the
city, though in ancient times it appears to have
poured its waters into the Oxos.

The tribes that peopled Hyrkania and Margiana
and the other regions that lay to the eastward
of the Kaspian were for the most part of Skythian
origin, and some of them were nomadic. They
are described by the ancient writers as brave and
hardy warriors, hnt of repulsive aspect and man-
ners, and addicted to inhuman practices. Ptolemy
names five as belonging to Margiana—the
Derbikkai, Massagetai, Parnei. Daéai and Ta-
pourol.

The Derbikes are mentioned by Strabo (lib.
XI, c. xi, sec. 7), who gives this account of them.
“The Derbikes worship the earth. They neither
sacrifice nor eat the female of any animal. Per-
sons who attain the age of above 70 years are
put to death by them, and their nearest relations
eat their flesh. Old women are strangled and then
buried. Those who die under 70 years of age
are not eaten, but are only buried.”

The Massagetai are referred to afterwards
(c. xiii, sec. 3) as a tribe of nomadic Sakal,
belonging to the neighbourhood of the river
Askatangkas. They are mentioned by Hetodotos
(lib. I, c. cciv.) who says that they inhabited a great
portion of the vast plain that extended castward
from the Kaspian. He then relates how Cyrus
lost his life in a bloody fight against them and
their queen Tomyris. Alexander came into colli-
sion with their wandering hordes during the
campaign of Sogdiana as Arrian relates (Andabd,
lih. VV, ce. xvi, xvi).

34 6

266

As regards the origin of their name it is referred
by Beal (J. R. A. S., N.S., vol. XVI, pp. 257, 279) to
maiza— greater’ (in Moeso-Gothic) and Yue-ti (or
chi). He thus reverts to the old theory of Rémusat
and Klaproth, that the Yue-ti were Getae, and this
notwithstanding the objection of Saint-Martin
stated in Les Huns Blancs, p. 37, n. 1. The old
sound of Ywe he observes was Get, correspondent
with the Greek form Getai. In calling atten-
tion to the Moeso-Gothic words maiza (greater)
and minniza (less) he suggests that ‘we have
here the origin of the names Massagetae, and the
Mins, the Ta Yue-chi (great Yue-chi) and the Sian
Yue-chi (little Yue-chi).”

The Parnoi, according to Strabo, were a
branch of the Dahai (lb. XI, c. vii, sec. 1) called
by Herodotos (lib. I, c. lui) the Daoi, and by our
author and Stephanos of Byzantium the Daai.
Strabo (lib. XI, c. vii, 2) says of them: ‘ Most of
the Skythians beginning from the Kaspian Sea, are
called DahaiSkythai, and those situated more
towards the east, Massagetai and Sakai, the rest
have the common appellation of Skythians, but
each separate tribe hasits peculiar name. All, or
the greater part of them, are nomadic.” Virgil
(Aen. lib. VIII, 1. 728) applies to the Dahae
the epithet indomiti. It is all but certain that
they have left traces of their name in the
province of Dahestan, adjoining to Astcrahad, as
this position was within the limits of their migra-
tory range. In the name Daae, Dahae or Ta-hia
(the Chinese form) it is commonly inferred that
we have the term Tajik, that 1s Persian, for there
is good reason to place Persians even in Trans-

267

oxiana long befvre the barbarous tribes of the
Kaspian plains were heard of (See Wilson’s
Arian. Antig., p. 141).

The Tapouroi appear to be the same as
the Tapyroi mentioned by Strabo as occupying
the country between the Hyrkanoi and the
Areioi. Their position, however, varied at various
times.

Nisaiaor Nigaia (the Nesaia of Strabo) has
been identified by Wilson (Arian. Antiq., pp. 142,
148) with the modern Nissa, a small town or
village on the north of the Elburz mountains,
between Asterabad and Meshd.

Cap. ll.
PosITION OF BAKTRIANE.

1, Baktriané is bounded on the west by
Margiansé along the side already described, on
the north and east by Sogdiané, along the rest
of the course of the River Oxos, and on the
south by the rest of Areia, extending from the
extreme point towards Margiané—
the position of which is...... 109° 39°
and by the Paropanisadai along the parallel
thence prolonged, through where the range of
Paropanisos diverges towards the sources of the
Oxos which lie in ............ 119° 30’ 39°

2. The following rivers which fall into the
Oxos flow through Baktriané :—

The river Okhos, whose
SOUPCES HE 6. esceeseeseeres 110° 39°

268

and the Dargamanés, whose

sources lie ..ceacceeceeceesee L1G? 30° 36° BU"
and the Zariaspis, whose

SOUPCES L1G “scsevendareeraveas 113° 3g?
and the Artamis, whose

sources lie: ..j..sceueecisas . 114° 39°
and the Dargoidos, whose

sources lie ..... ahasntenisions 116° 39°
and the point where this

joins the Oxos lies in...... 117° 30° 44°

3. Of the other tributaries the Artamis and
the Zariaspis unite in......... 113° 40° 40°
before falling into the Oxos

Bs ac coe essen Wevayeeecg . 112°30’ 44°

4, The Deuanianes ea the Okhos also
DIIVO AM . iienssicueeseantuns wvzes LOD” 40° 30’
before falling ae the Oxos

IN. deavmews eae nevae vite’ . 109° 44°

5. Of the Paroneniaee range, the western
part is situated in .......... 111° 30’ 39°
and [the Hastern] in ......... 119° 80% 39°

6. The parts of Baktriané in the north
and towards the River Oxos are inhabited by
the Salaterai and the Zariaspal, and to
the south of these up towards the Salaterai the
Khomaroi, and below these the K6moi,
then the Akinakai, then the Tambyzoi,
and below the Zariaspai the Tokharoi, a
great people, and below them the Mary kaio 1y
and the Skordai, and the Ouarnoi

269

(Varnoi), and still below those the Saba divi,

and the Oreisitoi, and the Amareis.
7. The towns of Baktriané towards the

river Oxos are the following :—

Kharakharta ..........ecceeee: 111°
Zari(a)spa or Kharispa ...... 115°
Khoana........esseevees iewenGes 117°
SOUrOgana ....0..scseesseeeeee: 117° 30’
POTALOW csciestea ieee oes 119°

8. And near the other rivers these :
Ali khorda........ccccecessacovens 107°
Khomara ....... SC nasuibaipaiiaa ad 106° 30’
Kouriandra ..........06 eeeeccee LO9° 30
KeGUaPISs. ci beecoweakxausesvesees 111° 20°
ASta Kanes cic cocats isa ceeeuebeus 112°
Ebousmouanassa or Tosmou-

ANASSA ves sses eichneaies Siena: 108° 30’
Menapia ...... cscecsere wenceaet 113°
HWiakratidia). sciccscacevesd scot 115°

9, Baktra, the king’s re-
sidence (Balkh) ............... 116°
Histobara ....ccccsceceeeceeceeees 109° 30’

Marakanda (Samarkand) ... 112°
Marakodra 115° 20/

eacteBe rere eereaeseares

44°
44°
42°
40° 30°
39° 20°
43° 30
43° 30’
42° 10’
43°
42° 20’

41° 20’
41° 20°
42°

41°

45° 20’
39° 15’
39° 20’

The boundaries of Baktra or Baktriana
varied at different periods of history, and were
never perhaps at any time fixed with much preci-
sion. According to Strabo it was the principal part
of Ariana, and was separated from Sogdiana on the
east and north-east by the Oxos, from Areia on
the south by the chain of Paropanisos, and on

270

the west from Margiana by a desert region. A
description of Baktriana, which Burnes, in his
work on Bokhara, corroborates as very accurate, is
given by Curtius (lib. VII, c. iv) and is to this
effect: ‘‘The nature of the Baktrian territory is
varied, and presents striking contrasts. In one
place it is well-wooded, and bears vines which
yield grapes of great size and sweetness. The soil
is rich and well-watered—and where such a genial
soil is found corn is grown, while lands with an
inferior soil are used for the pasturage of cattle.
To this fertile tract succeeds another much more
extensive, which is nothing but a wild waste of
sand parched with drought, alike without in-
habitant and without herbage. The winds, more-
over, which blow hither from the Pontic Sea,
sweep before them the sand that covers the plain,
and this, when it gathers into heaps, looks, when
seen from a distance, like a collection of great
hills; whereby all traces of the road that for-
merly existed are completely obliterated. Those,
therefore, who cross these plains, watch the stars
by night as sailors do at sea, and direct their
course by their guidance. In fact they almost
see better under the shadow of night than in the
glare of sunshine. They are, consequently, unable
to find their way in the day-time, since there is
no track visible which they can follow, for the
brightness of the luminaries above is shrouded in
darkness. Should now the wind which rises
from the sea overtake them, the sands with
which it is laden would completely overwhelm
them. Nevertheless in all the more favoured loca-
lities the number of men and of horses that are

there generated is exceedingly gteat. Baktra
itself, the capital city of that region, is situated
under mount Paropanisos. The river Bactrus
passes by its walls: and gave the city and the
region their name.” This description is in agree-
ment with the general character of the country
from Balkh to Bokhara, in which oases of the
most productive soil alternate with wastes of
sand.

Baktra figures very early in history. Its capital
indeed, Baktra (now Balkh) is one of the oldest
cities in the world. The Baktrian Walls is one
of the places which Euripides (Bakkhai, 1. 15)
represents Dionysos to have visited in the course
of his eastern peregrinations. Ninus, as we learn
through Ktésias, marched into Baktriana with a
vast army and, with the assistance of Semiramis,
took its capital. In the time of Darius it was a
satrapy of the Persian empire and paid a tribute
of 360 talents. Alexander the Great, when
marching in pursuit of Bessus, passed through
Baktria and, crossing the Oxos, proceeded as far
as Marakanda (Samarkand). Having subjugated
the regions lying in that direction, he returned to
Baktra and there spent the winter before starting
to invade India. Some years after the conqueror’s
death Seleukos reduced Baktria, and annexed it
to his other dominions. It was wrested, however,
from the hands of the third prince of his line about
the year 256 B.C. or perhaps later, by Antiokhos
Theos or Theodotos, who made Baktria an inde-
pendent kingdom. His successors were ambitious
and enterprising, and appear to have extended
their authority along the downward course of the

272

Indus even to the ocean, and southward along the
coast as far as the mouth of the Narmadéi. The
names of these kings have been recovered from
their coins found in great numbers both in
India andin Afghanistan. This Graeko-Baktrian
empire, after having subsisted for about two
centuries and a half, was finally overthrown by
the invasion of different hordes of the Sakai,
named, as Strabo informs us, the Asioi, Pasianoi,
Tokharoi and Sakarauloi.*® These Sakai yielded
in their turn to barbarians of their own kindred
or at least of their own type, the Skythians, who
gave their name to the Indus valley and the
regions adjoining the Gulf of Khambhit. Among
the most notable Indo-Skythian kings were
Kadphises and Kanerkes who reigned at the end
of the first and the beginning of the second
century of our era and, therefore, not very long
before the time of Ptolemy. Between the Indo-
Skythian and Muhammadan periods was inter-
posed the predominancy of Persia in the regions
of which we have been speaking.

Ptolemy mentions five rivers which fall into the
Oxos: the Okhos, Dargamanés, Zariaspis, Arta-
mis, and Dargoidos, of which the Zavriaspis and
Artamis unite before reaching the Oxos. Ptole-
my’s account cannot he reconciled with the existing
hydrography of the country. The Dargamanés
is called by Ammianus (lib. XXIII, c. vi) the Ore

36 The Wu-sun (of Chinesc history) are apparently to be
ideutified with the Asii or Asiani, who, according to
Strabo occupied the upper waters of the Taxartes, “and
who are classed as nomades with the Tokhéri and
Sakavranli (? Sara-Kauli, t.¢c., Sarikulis).—hkingsmill. in
JLR. ALS. NLS., vol. XIV, p. 79.

&

273

t

menes. The Artamis, Wilson thinks, may be
the river now called the Dakash (Ariana Antiqua,
p. 162) and the Dargamanés, the present river
of Ghori or Kunduz which is a tributary of the
Okhos and not of the Oxos as in Ptolemy. The
Okhos itself has not been identified with cer-
tainty. Accordingto Kinneir it is the Tezen or
Tejend which, rising in Sarakhs, and receiving
many confluents, falls into the Kaspian in N. L.
33° 41’. According to Elphinstone it is the river
of Herat, either now lost in the sand or going to
the Oxos (Ariana Antiqus, p. 146). Bunbury
(vol. II, p. 284) points out that in Strabo the
Okhos is an independent river, emptying into the
Kaspian. The Okhos of Artemidoros, he says, may
be certainly identified with the Attrek,whose course,
till lately, was very imperfectly known.

Ptolemy gives a list of thirteen tribes which
inhabited Baktriané. Their names are obscure,
and are scarcely mentioned elsewhere.*”

In the list of towns few known names occur. The
most notable are Baktra, Marakanda, Bukratidia
and Zariaspa. Baktra, as has been already stated,
is the modern Balkh. Heeren (Asiatic Nations,
Qnd edit., vol. I, p. 424), writes of it in these terms :
“The city of Baktra must be regarded as the
commercial entrepdt of Hastern Asia: its name
belongs to a people who never cease to afford

37 Prof. Beal (J. R. A. S., N. S., Vol. XVI, p. 253),
connects the name of the Tekharoi with Tu-ho-lo the
nam3 of a country or kingdom Tukhird, frequently men-
tioned by Hiuen Tsiang. Ths middle symbol ho, he
says, represents tha rough aspirate, and we should thus
get Tahra or Tuxra, from which would come the Greek
Tokharol.

35 Gc

274

matter for historical details, from the time they
are first mentioned. Not only does Baktra con-
stantly appear as a city of wealth and importance
in every age of the Persian empire, but it
is continually interwoven in the traditions of
the Hast with the accounts of Semiramis and
other conquerors. It stood on the borders of the
gold country, ‘in the road of the confluence of
nations,’ according to an expression of the Zend-
avesta; and the conjecture that in this part of
the world the human race made its first advance
in civilisation, seems highly probable.” The name
of Balkh is from the Sanskrit name of the
people of Baktra, the Bahlikas. Marakanda
is Samarkand. It was the capital of Sogdiana,
but Ptolemy places it in Baktriang, and consider-
ably to the south of Baktra, although its actual
latitude is almost 3 degrees to the north. It was
one of the cities of Sogdiana which Alexander
destroyed. Its circumference was estimated at
64 stadia, or about 7 miles. The name has been
interpreted to mean “ warlike province.” Euk ra-
tidia received its name from the Grueko-Baktrian
king, Eukratidés, by whom it was founded. Its
site cannot be identified. Pliny makes Zariaspa
the same as Baktra, but this must be a mistake.
No satisfactory site has been as yet assigned to it.

Cap. 12.
PostrloN OF THE SOGDIANOI.

The Sogdianoi are bounded on the west
by that part of Skythia which extends from the
section of the Oxos which is towards Baktriané
and Margiané through the Oxelan mountains

275

as far as the section of the river Iaxartes, which
lies in 110° E. 49° N.; on the north likewise by a
part of Skythia along the section of the Iaxartes
extended thence as far as the limit where its
course bends, which lies in 120° IN. 48° 30’ N.
On the east by the Sakai along the (bending)
of the Iaxartes as far as the sources of the
bending which lie in 125° EH. 43° N., and by the
line prolonged from the Sakai to an extreme
point which lies in 125° KE. 38° 30’ N., and on
the east and the south and again on the west by
Baktriané along the section of the Oxos alread y
mentioned and by the Kaukasian mountains
especially so-called, and the adjoining line
and the limits as stated, and the sources of the
Oxos.

2. The mountains called the Sogdian
extend between the two rivers, and have their
extremities lying in ......... 111° 47°
BA scoende teense ety eeunte ene 122° 46° 30°

3. From these mountains a good many
nameless rivers flow in contrary directions to
meet these two rivers, and of these nameless
rivers one forms the Oxeian Lake, the middle
of which lies in 111° E. 45° N., and other two
streams descend from the same hilly regions as
the Iaxartes—the regions in question are called
the Highlands of the Kémédai. Each of these
streams falls into the Iaxartes; one of them
is called Démos and
its sources le in .......... wits 24” 43°

276

Its junction with the river

Iaxartes occurs in ....... .. 123° 47°
The other is the Baskatis

whose sources heim ...... 323° 43°
Its junction with the river

Taxartes occurs in .,....... 121° 47° 30°

4, The country towards the Oxeian moun-
tains is possessed by the Paskai, and the
parts towards the most northern section of the
Taxartes by the Iatioi, and the Toktaroi,
below whom are the Aagaloi; then along
the Sogdian mountains the Oxydringkai
and the Dry baktai, and the Kandaroi,
and below the mountains the Mardyénoji,
and along the Oxos the Oxetanci and the
Khoérasmioi, and farther east than these
the Drepsianoi, and adjoining both the
rivers, and still further east than the above
the Anieseis along the Jaxartes, and the
KirrhAadai for Kirrhodeeis) along the Oxos,
and between the Kaukasos Range and Imaos
the country called Ouandabanda.

5. Towns of the Sogdianoi in the high-
fands along the Iaxartes are these :—

Kyreskhata ....... davienaeuasues 124° 43° 40’
Along the Oxos :—

CVRCIANA eas eeccc ev eeereseeeres 117° 30’ 44° 20/7

MMarouka: scccceastpasswereesan 117° 15’ = 43° 4.0’

Kholbésina .............08. vacaes AZT 43°

6. Between the rivers and higher up—

led

_

ENV AUT s eh ecatagdusseenie Ler ko”

Alexandreia Oxeiané ..,...... 123° 44° 2
Indikomordana .. ........ aseye bLO” 44° 20°
Drepsa (or Rhepsa) the

Metropolis ....46....2.-08.+. 120° 45°
Alexandreia Eskhaté (i.e.

Ulbima): sevsniseiceses ogee 1227 41°

Sogdiana was divided from Baktriana by
the river Oxos and extended northward from
thence to the river Iaxartes. The Sakai lay along
the eastern frontier and Skythic tribes along the
western. The name exists to this day, being
preserved in Soghd which designates the country
lying along the river Kohik from Bokhara east-
ward to Samarkand. The records of Alexander’s
expedition give much information regarding this
country, for the Makedonian troops were engaged
for the better part of three years in effecting its
subjugation.

In connexion with Sogdiana, Ptolemy mentions
four mountain ranges—the Kaukasian, the
Sogdian, the mountain district of the K 6m ێ-
dai, and Imraos. Kattkasos was the general name
applied by the Makedonians to the great chain
which extended along the northern frontiers of
Afghanistan, and which was regarded as a pro-
longation of the real Kauttkasos. Ptolemy uses it
here in a specifie sense to designate that part
of the chain which formed the eastern continua-
tion of the Paropanisos towards Imaos. Imaos
is the meridian chain which intersects the Kau-
kasos, and is now called Bolor Tagh. Ptolemy
places it about 8 degrees too far eastward. The

278

Sogdian Mountains, placed by Ptolemy betwees
the laxartes and Oxos, towards their sources,
are the Thian Shan. The K6m édai, who gave
their name to the third range, were, according to
Ptolemy, the inhabitants of the hill-country which
lay to the east of Baktriana and up whose
valley lay the route of the caravans from Baktra,
bound for Sérika across Imaus or the Thsuneg-
lung. Cunniagham has identified them with the
Kiu-mi-tho (Kumidha) of Hiuen Tsiang. Their
mountain district is that called Muz-tigh.

The rivers mentioned in connexion with
Sogdiana are the Oxos, and the laxartes, with its
two tributarics, the Baskatis and the Démos.
The Oxos takes its rise in the Pamir’ Lake,.
called the Sari-Kul (or Yellow Lake), at a distance
of fully 300 miles to the south of the Iaxartes.
It is fed on its north bank by many smaller
streams which run due south from the Pamir
uplands, breaking the S.W. face of that region
into a series of valleys, which, though ruyvged, are
of exuberant fertility. Its course then lies for

38 The Pamir plateau between Badakshan and Yarkand
connects several chains of mountains, viz. the Hindu
Kush in the S.W. the Kuen-luen in the E., the Karar
Korum in the Bolor, the Thian-shén chain in the north,
which runs from Tirak Dawan and Miug-yol to the
Western Farghana Pass. This plateauis called Bim-t-
dunyi or Roof of the World. With regard to the name
Pamir Sir H. Rawlinson says : “ My own conjecture is that
the name of Pamir, or Famir, as it is always written by
the Arabs, is derived from the Fani (Pavvot), who, accor-
ding to Strabo bounded the Greek kingdom of Baktria
to the E. (XI. 14) and whose name is also preserved in
Fan-taéa, the Fan-Lake, &c. Famir for Fan-mir would
then be a compound like Kashmir, Aj-mir, Jessel-mir, &c.
signifying ‘the lake country of the Fé-ni.” (J R.G. 8.
XLII. p £89, n.).’

279

hundreds of miles through arid and saline steppes
till before reaching the sea of Aral it is dissipated
into a network of canals, both natural and artifi-
cial. Its delta, which would otherwise have re-
mained a desert, has thus been converted into a
fruitful garden, capable of supporting a teeming
population, and it was one of the very earliest
seats of civilization.°® The deflexion of the waters
of the Oxos into the Aral, as Sir H. Rawlinson
points out, has been caused in modern times not
by any upheaval of the surface of the Turcoman
desert, but by the simple accidents of fluvial
action in an alluvial soil. The name of the river
is in Sanskrit Vakshu, Mongolian, Bakshu. Tibe-
tan Pakshu Chinese Po-thsu, Arabic and Persian
Vakhsh-an or éb—from Persian vah= ‘pure,’ or
Sanskrit Vah =‘ to flow.’ The region embracing the
head-waters of the Oxos appears to have been the
scene of the primeval Aryan Paradise. The four
rivers thereof, as named by the Brahmans, were the
Sita, the Alakananda, the Vakshu, and the Bhadro
= respectively, according to Wilson to the Hoang-
ho, the Ganges, the Oxos, and the Oby. Accord.
ing to the Buddhists the rivers were the Ganger,
the Indus, the Oxos, and the Sita, all of which
they derived from a great central lake in the
plateau of Pamir, called A-neou-ta = Kara-kul or
Sarik -kul Lake.

The Iaxartes is now called the Syr-darya or

39 “*Abu Rihan says that the Solar Calendar of Khwé-
rasm was the most perfect scheme for the measurement
of time with which he was acquainted. Also that the
Khwérasmians dated originally from an epoch anterior
by 980 years to the aera of the Seleucidae=J34 B.C.’’
(See Quarterly Review, No. 240, Art. on Central Asia).

280

Yellow River. The ancients sometimes called it
the Araxes, but, according to D’ Anville, this is but
an appellative common to it with the Amu or Oxos,
the Armenian Aras and the Rha or Volga. The
name [axartes was not properly a Greek word but
was borrowed from the barbarians by whom, as
Arrian states (Anab. lib. ITT. c. xxx), it was called
the Orxantes. It was probably derived from the
Sanskrit root kshar, ‘‘to flow’ with a semitic
feminine ending, and this etymology would explain
the modern form of Sirr. See J. Rk. G. S. XLII.
p.492,n. The Jaxartes rises in the high plateau
south of Lake Issyk-kul in the Thian Shan. Its
course is first to westward through the valley of
Khokan, where it receives numerous tributaries.
It then bifurcates, the more northern branch re-
taining the name of Syr-darya. This flows towards
the north-west, and after a course of 1150 miles
from its source enters the Sea of Aral. Ptolemy
however, like all the other classical writers, makes
it enter the Kaspian sea. Humboldt accounts
for this apparent error by adducing facts which
go to show that the tract between the Aral and
the Kaspiau was once the bed of an united and con-
tinuous sea, and that the Kaspian of the present
day is the small residue of a once mighty Aralo-
Kaspian Sea. Ammianus Marcellinus (lib. XXIIT,
c. vi), describing Central Asia in the upper course of
the Iaxartes which falls into the Kaspian, speaks
of two rivers, the Araxates and Dymas (probably
the Démos of Ptolemy) which, rushing impetuously
down from the mountains and passing into a level
plain, form therein what is called the Oxian lake,
which ig spread over a vast area. This is the

281

earliest intimation of the Sea of Aral. (See Smith's
Dict. of Anc. Geog. 8. v.). Bunbury, however, says
(vol. II, pp. 641-2): “ Nothing but the unwilling-
ness of modern writers to admit that the ancients
were unacquainted with so important a feature in
the geography of Central Asia as the Sea of
Aral could have led them to suppose it repre-
sented by the Oxiana Paulus of Ptolemy. While
that author distinctly describes both the Jaxartes
and the Oxus as flowing into the Caspian Sea, he
speaks of a range of mountains called the Sog-
dian Mountains, which extend between the two
rivers, from which flow several nameless streams
into those two, one of which forms the Oxian lake.
This statement exactly tallies with the fact that
the Polytimetos or river of Soghd, which rises
in the mountains in question, does not flow into
the Oxus, but forms a small stagnant lake
called Kara-kul or Denghiz; and there seems no
doubt this was the lake meant by Ptolemy. It is
true that Ammianus Marcellinus, in his descrip»
tion of these regions, which is very vague and
inaccurate, but is based for the most part upon
Ptolemy, terms it a large and widespread lake,
but this is probably nothing more than a rhetorical
flourish.” The laxartes was regarded as the
boundary towards the east of the Persian Empire,
which it separated from the nomadic Skythians.
The soldiers of Alexander believed it to be the
same as the Tanais or Don. 7

In the list of the tribes of Sogdiana some
names occur which are very like Indian, the Kan-
daroi, who may be the Gandharas, the Mardyénoi,
the Madras, the Takhoroi, the Takurs, and the

38 G

282

.Kirrhadai (or Kirrhodeeis) the Kiraéta. The name
of the Khorasmioi has been preserved to the
present day in that of Khwérazm, one of the
designations of the Khanate of Khiva. The
position of the Khorasmioi may be therefore
assigned to the regions south of the Sea of Aral,
which is sometimes called after them the Sea of
Khwérazm. The Drepsianoi had their seats
on the borders of Baktria, as Drepsa, one of
their cities and the capital of the country, may
be identified with Andarab, which was a Baktrian
town. Itiscalled by Strabo Adrapsa and Darapsa—
(lib. XI, c. xi, 2,and lib. XV, c. ii, 10) and Drapsaka
by Arrian—(Anab. lib. III, c. 39). Bunbury
(vol. I, p. 427, n. 3) remarks: ‘“ The Drepsa of
Ptolemy, though doubtless the same name, can-
not be the same place (as the Drapsaka of Arrian,
Anab. lib. IIT, c. xxix.) as that author places it in
Sogdiana, considerably to the north of Marakanda.”
Ptolemy, however, as I have already pointed out,
places Marakanda to the south of Baktra.
Kingsmill (J. B. A. S., N. S., vol. XIV, p. 82)
identifies Darapsa with the Lam-shi-ch’eng of the
Chinese historians. It was the capital of their Ta-
hia (Tokhaéra—Baktria) which was situated about
2000 li south-west of Ta-wan (Yarkand), to the
south of the Kwai-shui (Oxos). The original form
of the name was probably, he says, Darampsa.
In Ta-wan he finds the Phrynoi of Strabo. The
region between Kaukasos and Imaés, Ptolemy calls
Vandabanda, a name of which, as Wilson
conjectures, traces are to be found in the name
of Badakshan.

With regard to the towns Mr. Vaux remarka,

283

(Smith’s Dict. s. v. Sogdiana): ‘ The historians
of Alexander’s march leave us to suppose that
Sogdiana abounded with large towns, but many
of these, as Prof. Wilson has remarked, were pro-
bably little more than forts erected along the
lines of the great rivers to defend the country
from the incursions of the barbarous tribes to its
N. and. Yet these writers must have had good
opportunity of estimating the force of these
places,as Alexander appears to have been the best
part of three years in this and the adjoining province
of Baktriana. The principal towns, of which the
names have been handed down to us, were Kyres-
khata orKyropolis on the Jaxartes (Steph.
Byz. s. v.; Curt. lib. VI, c. vi) Gaza (Ghaz or
Ghazni, Ibn Haukal, p. 270); Alexandreia
Ultima (Arrian, lib. III, c. xxx; Curt. l. c.; Am.
Marc., lib. X XIII, c. vi) doubtless in the neighbour-
hood, if not on the site of the present Khojend ;
Alexandreia Oxiana (Steph. Byz. s. v.);
Nautaka (Arrian, An. lib. III, c. xxviii; lib. LV,
c. xviii) in the neighbourhood of Karshi or Naksheb.
Brankhidae, a place traditionally said to have
been colonized by a Greek population; and Mar-
ginia (Curt., lib. VII, c. x, 15) probably the
present Marghinan.”’

Cap. 13.

PosITION OF THE SAKAl,
[Map of Asia 7.]
1. The Sakai are bounded on the west by

the Sogdianoi along their eastern side already
described, on the north by Skythia along the

284

line parallel to the river Iaxartes as far as the
himit of the country which lies in 130° E, 49°N.
on the east in like manner by Skythia along
the meridian lines prolonged from thence and
through the adjacent range of mountains called
Askatangkas as far as the station at Mount
Imads, whence traders start on their journey to
Séra which lies in 140° E, 43° N., and through
Mount Imaés as it ascends to the north as far as
the limit ofthecountry which lies in 143° E.35°N.,
and on the south by Imads itself along the
Iine adjoining the limits that have been
stated.

2. Thecountry of the Sakaiis inhabited
by nomads. They have no towns, but dwell in
woods and caves. Among the Sakai is the
mountain district, already mentioned, of the
Koémédai, of which the ascent from the

Sogdianoi lies in .......... cs eee sew eee 125° = 488°
And the parts towards the val-

ley of the Kémédai lie in......... 130° 39°
And the so-called Stone Tower

HOS/11 55 sctwsnwewtedeecenseomias seseseee LBD? 43°

3. The tribes of the Sakai, along the Iaxartes,
arethe Karataiand the Komaroi,and the
people who have all the mountain region are
the K 6m édai,and the people along the range
of Askatangka the Massagetai; and the
people between are the GrynaioiSkythai
and the To Ornai, below whom, along Mount
Imadés, are the By Itai.

285

In the name of the mountain range on the
east of the Sakai, Aska-tangk-as, the middle
syllable represents the Turkish word tdgh—
‘mountain.’ The tribe of the K aratai, which was
seated along the banks of the Iaxartes, bears a
name of common application, chiefly to members
of the Mongol family—that of Karait. The name
of the Massagetai, Latham has suggested, may
have arisen out of the common name Mustdgh, but
Beal, as already stated, refers it to the Moeso-gothic
“ maiza” and ‘* Yue-chi—Getsz.” The B yltaiare
the people of what is now called Little Tibet and
also Baltistan.

Cap. ]A4.
PosITION OF SKYTHIA WITHIN ImAO6s,
[Map of Asia 7.]

1. Skythia within Imaés is bounded on
the west by Sarmatia in Asia along the side
already traced, on the north by an unknown
land, on the east by Mount Imao6s ascending to
the north pretty nearly along the meridian of
the starting-place already mentioned as far as
the unknown land .............005 .. 140° 68°,
on the south and also on the east by the Sakai
and the Sogdianoi and by Marginé along their
meridians already mentioned as far as the
Hyrkanian Sea at the mouth of the Oxos, and
also by the part of the Hyrkanian Sea lying
between the north of the Oxos and the river
Rha according to such an outline.

286

2. The bend of the River Rha which marks
the boundary of Sarmatia and

RV ENA io cceccdoswcecicanesasimes 85° 54°
with the mouth of the river
Rha which lies in ......... 87° 30’ 48° 50/

Mouth of the river Rhym-
MOS i cicveeses sacs caves.cae cee cs 91° 48° 457
Mouth of the river Daix .,.. 94° 48° 45/

Mouth of the river Iaxartes 97° 48°
Mouth of the river Iastos ... 100° 47° 20°
Mouth of the river Polyti-

MEtOS ....ccceesece eeeueueants 103° 45° 307
Aspabéta, a town ........6... 102° 44°

after which comes the mouth of the Oxos.

3. The mountains of Skythia within Imaés
are the more eastern parts of the Hyperborean
hills and the mountains called
Alana, whose extremities

De ssdecoseaaaaveuconss Reta agues 105° 59°
ANG. casudetesocsecetenreeacneasns 118° 59° 30’
4, And the Rymmik mountains whose ex-
tremities lie.,,...cessccresereee 90° 54°
HUG. jnsciieengwoacidenennes pagwewens 99° 47° 30°

from which flow the Rymmos and some other
streams that discharge into the River Rha,
uniting with the Daix river.

5, And the Norosson range, of which the
extremities lie.............c000 97° 53° 30°
and ....... ileus sonics saeieaaes 106° 52° 30’
and from this range flow the Daix and some
other tributaries of the Iaxartes.

287

6. And the range of mountains called
Aspisia whose extremities lie 111° 55° 30’
BIG’ cavietcnnenCocseewoteweeauks 117° 52° 30’
and from these some streams flow into the
River Iaxartes.

7. And the mountains called Tapoura whose
extremities lie ..........ccceeee. 120° 56°
BAGS itiepcususeedeseceaameeses choo” 49°
from which also some streams flow into the
Iaxartes.

8. In addition to these in the depth of the
region of the streams are the Syéba mountains

whose extremities Jie ......... 121° 58°
AWAY -aiscccedancudenhacevecncasacces 132° 62°
and the mountains called the Anarea whose
extremities lie .........-08.0ee eka 56°
GUO eee h ocr cin ia eetabwscionseaawes 137° 50°

after which is the bend in the direction of
Tma6s continuing it towards the north,

9. All the territory of this Skythia in the
north, adjoining the unknown regions, is in-
habited by the people commonly called the
Alanoi Skythai and theSouobénoi
and the Alanorsoi, and the country below
these by the Saitianoiand the Massaioi
and the Syéboi, and along Imaés on the
outer side the Tektosakes, and near the
most eastern sources of the river Rha the
Rhobosk oi below whom the Asmanoi.

10. Then the Paniardoi, below whom,
more towards the river, the country of K ano-

288

dipsa, and below it the Koraxoi, then
the Orgasoi, after whom as far as the sea
the Erymmoi, to east of whom are the
Asiodtai, then the Aorsoi, after whom are
the laxartai, agreat race seated along their
homonymous river as far as to where it bends
towards the Tapoura Mountains, and again
below the Saitanioiare the M ologé noi, below
whom, as far as the Rymmik range, are the
Samnitatl.

11. And below the Massaioi and the Alana
Mountains aretheZaratai andthe Sasones,
aud further east than the Rymmik Mountains
are the Tybiakai, after whom, below the
Zaratai, are the Tabiénoi and the listai
and the Makhaitégoi along the range of
Norosson, after whom are the Norosbeis
and the Norossoi, and below these the
KakhagaiSkythai along the country of
the Iaxartai.

12. Further west than the Aspisia range
are the Aspisioi Skythai, and further
east the GalaktophagoiSkythai, and
in like manner the parts farther east than the
Tapoura and Syéba ranges are inhabited by the
Tapoureol.

13. The slopes and summits of the Anarea
Mountains and Monnt Askatangkas are inhabit-
ed by the homonymous AnareoiSkythai
below the Alanorsoi, and the Askatangkai

289

Sk ythaifurther east than the Taponreoi, and
as far as Mount Imais.

14. Butthe parts between the Tapoura
Mountains and the slope towards the mouth of
the Iaxartes and the seacoast between the two
rivers are possessed by the Ariakaj, along
the Iaxartes and below these the Namostai,
then the Sagaraukai, and along the river
Oxos the Rhi bioi, who have a town
Dauaba ........ ees cave Musmealeene adaedes 104° 45°.

The country of the Skyths is spread over a
vast area in the east of Europe and in Western
and Central Asia. The knowledge of the Skyths
by the Greeks dates from the earliest period
of their literature, for in Homer (Jliad, lib.
XIII, 1. 4) we find mention made of the Galakto-
phagei (milk-eaters) and the Hippemologoi (mare-
milkers) which must have been Skythic tribes,
since the milking of mares is a practice distinctive
of the Skyths. Ptolemy’s division of Skythia into
within and beyond Imadés is peculiar to himself,
and may have been suggested by his division of
India into within and beyond the Ganges. Imads,
as has already been pointed out is the Bolor chain,
which Las been for ages the boundary between
Turkistan and China. Ptolemy, however, placed
Imaés too far to the east, 8° further than the
meridian of the principal source of the Ganges.
The cause of this mistake, as a writer in Smith’s
Dictionary points out, arose from the circumstance
that the data upon which Ptolemy came to his con-
clusion were selected from two different scurces,
The Greeks first became acquainted with the

37 «&

290

K6émédorum Montes when they passed the Indian
Kaukasos between Kabul and Balkh, and advanced
over the plateau of Bamiyin along the west slopes
of Bolor, where Alexander found in the tribe of
the Sibae the descendants of Héraklés, just as
Marco Polo and Burnes met with people who
boasted that they had sprung from the Make-
donian conquerors. The north of Bolor was
known from the route of the traffic of the Séres.
The combination of notations obtained from such
different sources was imperfectly made, and hence
the error in longitude. This section of Skythia
comprised Khiva, the country of the Kosaks,
Ferghina, Tashkend, and the parts about the
Balkash.

The rivers mentioned in connexion with Skythia
within Imaés are the Oxos, Jaxartes, Rha, Rhym-
mos, Daix, laistos and Polytimétos. The Rha& is
the Volga, which is sometimes called the Rhau
by the Russians who live in its neighbourhood.
Ptolemy appears to be the first Greek writer who
mentions it. The Rhymmos isa small stream
between the Rhaand the Ural river called the Naryn-
chara. The Daix is the Isik or Ural river. The
lastos was identified by Humboldt with the
Kizil-darya, which disappeared in the course of last
century, but the dry bed of which can be traced in
the barren wastes of Kizil-koum in W. Turkestan.
With regard to the Polytimétos, Wilson says
(Arian. Antiq. p. 168); “There can be no hesita-
tion in recognizing the identity of the Polytimétés
and the Zarafshin, or river of Samarkand, called
also the Kohik, or more correctly the river of
the Kohak; being so termed from its passing by

291

a rising ground, a Koh-ak, a ‘little hill’ or
‘ hillock,’ which lies to the east of the city. Accord-
ing to Strabo, this river traversed Sogdiana
and was lost in the sands. Curtius describes it as
entering a cavern and continuing its course under-
ground. The river actually terminates in a small
lake to the south of Bokhara, the Dangiz, but in
the dry weather the supply of water is too scanty
to force its way to the lake, and it is dis-
persed and evaporated in the sands. What the
original appellation may have been does not ap-
pear, but the denominations given by the Greeks
and Persians ‘the much-honoured’ or ‘ the gold-
shedding’ stream convey the same idea, and inti-
mate the benefits it confers upon the region
which it waters.” Ptolemy is wide astray in
making it enter the Kaspian.

The mountains enumerated are the Alana,
Rhymmika, Norosson, Aspisia, Tapoura, Syéba, and
Anarea. By the Alana Mountains, which lay to
the east of the Hyperboreans, it has been supposed
that Ptolemy designated the northern part of the
Ural Chain. If so, he has erroneously given their
direction as from west to east. The Rhymmik
mountains were probably another branch of that
great meridian chain which consists of several
ranges which run nearly parallel. The Noros-
s0n may be taken as Ptolemy’s designation for
the southern portion of this chain. The As-
pisiaand Tapoura mountains lay to the north
of the Iaxartes. The latter, which are placed
three degrees further east than the Aspisia, may be
the western part of the Altai. The Syéba
stretched stall farther eastward with an inclina-

292

tion northward. To the southward of them were
the Anarea, which may be placed near the
sources of the Obi and the Irtish, forming one of
the western branches of the Altai. Ptolemy errone-
ously prolongs the chain of Imadés to these high
latitudes.

Ptolemy has named no fewer than 38 tribes be-
longing to this division of Skythia. Of these the
best known are the Alani, who belonged also to
Europe, where they occupied a great portion of
Southern Russia. At the time when Arrian the
historian was Governor of Kappadokia under
Hadrian, the Asiatic Alani attacked his province,
but were repelled. He subsequently wrote a
work on the tactics to be observed against the
Alani (éxra&is kar ’ANavev) of which some fragments
remain. The seats of the Alani were in the north
of Skythia and adjacent to the unknown land,
which may be taken to mean the regions stretch-
ing northward beyond Lake Balkash. The posi-
tion of the different tribes is fixed with sufficient
clearness in the text. These tribes were essenti-
ally nomadic, pastoral and migratory—hence in
Ptolemy’s description of their country towns are
singularly conspicuous by their absence,

Cap. 15.
THE POSITION oF SKYTHIA BEYOND IMA Os.
[Map of Asia, 8.]

1, Skythia beyond Mount Ima6s is
bounded on the west by Skythia within Imads,
and the Sakai along the whole curvature of the

293

mountains towards the north, and on the north
by the unknown land, and on the east by Seriké
in a straight line whereof the extremities

NAN -sccaaces ida Seunenicauctanen’ Sdapaanas 150° 63°
BUG. cua seeetca dav seaaa inves seavangss LOO? <0"
and on the south by a part of India beyond the
Ganges along the parallel of latitude which
cuts the southern extremity of the line just
mentioned,

2. In this division is situated the western
part of the Auxakian Mountains, of which the
OXtPEMIbICS NO o5c4 pewrsusevasetessecuee 149° 49°
GUC: “eiedartasantvnes ni tanenisese onus wee. 165° 54°
and the western part of the mountains
called Kasia, whose extremities lie in 152° 41°
Bech tema aa aiiea San eiaes panies 162° 44°
and also the western portion of Emddos,
whose extremities lie in ............,.. 153° 36°

BO ahs iene tt okt eee an sease WO”. BG"
and towards the eee the source
of the River Oikhardés lying in...... 153° 51°

3. The northern parts of this Skythia are
possessed by the Abioi Sk ythaji, and the
parts below them by the Hippophagoi
Skythai, after whom the territory of Au xa-
kitis extends onward, and below this again,
at the starting place already mentioned, the
K asian land, below which are the Khatai
Skythai, and then succeeds the Akhasa
land, and below it along the Eméda the K ha-
raunaioi Skythai.

204,

4, T
AURORA: Soiviccvavwsuiveciscrvieeeselda™ ~49° 40°
Issédén Skythiké ....... Gees itaayes 150° 49° 30’
Khaurana.......e..0.. tae seceeeeedd0° 37° 15’
OIA ves dertasatbtsagunaekuumeee erent 145° 35° 20°

Skythia pees Imaés embraced Ladakh, Tibet,
Chinese Tartary and Mongolia. Its mountains
were the Auxakian and Kasian chains, both
of which extended into Sériké, and Emodos.
The Auxakians may have formed a part of the
Altai, and the Kasians, which Ptolemy places five
degrees further south, are certainly the mountains
of Kashgar. The Emodos are the Himalayas.

The only river named in this division is the
Oikhardés, which has its sources in three
different ranges, the Auxakian, the Asmiraean
and the Kasian. According to a writer in Smith’s
Dictionary the Oikhardés “may be considered
to represent the river formed by the union of the
streams of Khotan, Yarkand, Kashgar and Ushi,
and which flows close to the hills at the base
of the Thian-shan. Saint-Martin again inclines
to think (chardés may be a designation of
the Indus, while still flowing northward from its
sources among the Himalayas. “ Skardo,”’ he says,
(Htude, p. 420) “the capital of the Balti, bears
to the name of the Oikhardés (Chardi in Amm.,
Marc. 2) a resemblance with which one is struck.
If the identification is well fownded, the river
Oichardés will be the portion of the Indus which
traverses Balti and washes the walls of Skardo.”

In the north of the division Ptolemy places the
AbioiSkythai. Homer, along with the Galak-

205

tophagoi and Hippémolgoi, mentions the Abiai.
Some think that the term in the passage designates
a distinct tribe of Skythians, but others take it to be
a common adjective, characterizing the Skythians
in general as very scantily supplied with the
means of subsistence. On the latter supposition
the general term must in the course of time have
become a specific appellation. Of the four towns
which Ptolemy assigns to the division, one bears
a well-known name, Issédo6n, which he calls
Skythiké, to distinguish it from Issédén in
Seriké. The name of the Issédénes occurs very
early in Greek literature, as they are referred to by
the Spartan poet Alkman, who flourished between
671 and 631 B. C. He calls them Assedones
Frag. 94, ed. Welcker). They are mentioned also
by Hekataios of Miletos. In very remote times
they were driven from the steppes over which
they wandered by the Arimaspians. They then
drove out the Skythians, who in turn drove out
the Kimmerians. Traces of these migrations are
found in the poem of Aristeas of Prokonnesos,
who is fabled to have made a pilgrimage to the
land of the Issédones. Their position has been
assigned to the east of Ichin, in the steppe of the
central horde of the Kirghiz, and that of the
Arimaspi on the northern declivity of the Altai.
(Smith’s Dict. s. v.) This position is not in
accordance with Ptolemy’s indications. Herodotos,
while rejecting the story of the Arimaspians
and the griffins that guarded their gold, admits
at the same time that by far the greatest quantity
of gold came from the north of Europe, in which
he ineluded the tracts aloug the Ural, and Altai

296

ranges. The abundance of gold among the
Skythians on the Euxine is attested by the
contents of their tombs, which have been opened
in modern times. (See Bunbury, vol. I, p. 200.)
Regarding Ptolemy’s Skythian geography,
Bunbury says (vol. II. p. 597) : “1t must be admit-
ted that Ptolemy’s knowledge of the regions
on either side of the Imaos was of the vaguest
possible character. Eastward of the Rha (Volga),
which he regarded as the limit between Asiatic
Sarmatia and Skythia, and north of the Iaxartes,
which he describes like all previous writers as
falling into the Kaspian—he had, properly
speaking, no geographical knowledge whatever.
Nothing had reached him beyond the names of
tribes reported at second-hand, and frequently
derived from different authorities, who would
apply different appellations to the same tribe, or
extend the same name to one or more of the
wandering hordes, who were thinly dispersed over
this vast extent of territory. Among the names
thus accumulated, a compilation that is probably
as worthless as that of Pliny, notwithstanding its
greater pretensions to geographical accuracy, we
find some that undoubtedly represent populations
really existing in Ptolemy’s time, such as the
Alani, the Aorsi, &c., associated with others that
were merely poetical or traditional, such as the
Abii, Galaktophagi and Hippophagi, while the
Issédones, who were placed by Herodotos imme-
diately east of the Tanais, are strangely transferred
by Ptolemy to the far Hast, on the very borders
of Serika; and he has even the name of a town
which he calls Issedon Serika, and to which he

297

assigns a position in longitude 22° east of Mount
Imadés, and not less than 46° east of Baktra. In
one essential point, as has been already pointed
out, Ptolemy’s conception of Skythia differed from
that of all preceding geographers, that instead of
regarding it as bounded on the north and east by
the sea, and consequently of comparatively linited
extent, he considered it as extending without
limit in both directions, and bounded only by ‘the
unknown land,’ or, in other words, limited only by
his own knowledge.”

Cap. 16.

Position oF SERIKR.
{Map of Asta, 8].

Seriké is bounded on the west by Sk yt hi a,
beyond Mount Imads, along the line already
mentioned, on the north by the unknown land
along the same parallel as that through Thulé,
and on the east, likewise by the unknown land
along the meridian of which the extremities
ViGiccetiodav tcp es ate sagas oes occas 180° 638°
ANC ace versacusoessteeswecs side scgeawacties 180° 55°
and on the south by the rest of India beyond
the Ganges through the same parallel as far as
the extremity lying ............. ohne 173° 55°
and also by the Sinai, through the line prolonged
till it reaches the already mentioned extremity
towards the unknown land.

2. Seriké is girdled by the mountains called
Anniba, whose extremities lie ...153° 60°
BG 3. Sdsipin oe ecient nasaee cates etna beL” OO"

38 Ga

298

and by the eastern part of the Auxakians,

of which the extremity lies ...... 165° 54°
and by the mountains called the Asmiraia
whose extremities lie ............... 167° 47° 30’
BIA” sCocavesausn eerste vaeunieaeees 174° 47° 30°
and by the eastern part of the Kasia range,
whose extremities lie ............... 162° 44°
ANG® -5cdssudiniaieaiieabiekens svseatsel ZL? “AU?
and by Mount Thagouron whose

centre lies........ siegunedtonns Sateen 170° 43°

and also by the eastern portion of the moun-
tains called Eméda and Sérika, whose extremity

eee en ree eer eee 165° 36°
and by the range called Ottorokorrhas, whose
extremities Ne: c.o:shssseeseuasactteass 169° 36°
BING: scalteweueretansavecnaaswereegess o. 176° 38°

3. There flow through the far greatest por-
tion of Sériké two rivers, the Oikhardés, one of
whose sources is placed with the Auxakioi, and
the other which is placed in the Asmiraian

mountains lies 1n.........sec-esseeeee 174° 347° 30’
and where it bends towards the Kasia
PANPO. cy sceucks eyeusics wat nhuimacncee 160° 48° 30’

but the source in them lies.........161° 44° 15’
and the other river is called the Bautisos, and
this has one of its sources in the Kasia range

AU Se aaetet suse ache ul teenne docscaeeces 160° 43°
another in Ottorokorrha............ 176° 39°
and it bends towards the Hmédain168° 39°
and its source in these lies......... 160° 37°

4. The most northern parts of Sérike are

299

inhabited by tribes of cannibals, below whom
is the nation of the An niboi, who occupy the
slopes and summits of the homonymous moun-
tains. Between these and the Auxakioi
is the nation of the Syzyges, below whom
are the Di mnai, then as far as the river
Oikhardes the Pialai(or Piaddai), and below
the river the homonymous Oikhardai.

5, And again farther east than the Anniboi
are the Garinaioi and the Rhabannai
or Rhabbanaioi, and below the country of
Asmiraia, above the homonymous moun-
tains. Beyond these mountains as far as the
Kasia range the [ssédones, a great race,
and further east than these the Throanoi,
and below these the Ithagouroi, to the
east of the homonymous mountains, below the
Issédones, the As pakaraji, and still below
those the Batai, and furthest south along
the Eméda and Sérika ranges the Ottoro-
korrhai.

6. The cities in Sériké are thus named :—

Damna ....... sox tutes Sacseseacee 156° 51° 20’
Piala (or Piadda)............... 160° 49° 40°
ASMIPAIA .ocscoseccsorseress dsaeel (0° 48°
TP POSTNG ciwiewessase sexes evesweds sd 174° 40’ 47° 40°
7. Issédén Serik6é ............ 162° 45°
Aspakara (or Aspakaia) ...... 162° 30’ 41° 40’
Drdsakhé (or Rhosakla) ...... 167° 40’ 42° 30’
Paliana ..........6. Jota wenstdantiats 162° 30’ 41°

Abragana veces “senseere, 163° 30’ 39° 307

600

8, Thovara sccscessssctiesss. 171° 20’ 39° 40°
Daxate: svecteiinioccenseteetseels ee 39° 30’
Ovosaa: b.ccaeestedieasne oun 162° 37° 30°
Ottorokorrha... ..... Puledsesscel oo 37° 15’
Solana ..... spegilcroeinevatoeel Oo” 37° 30’
Séra metropolis..........000 ~ 177° 38° 35’

The chapter which Ptolemy has devoted to
Sérik éhas given rise to more abortive theories
and unprofitable controversies than any other part
of his work on Geography. The position of
Seriké itself has been very variously determined,
having been found by different writers in one or
other of the many countries that intervene be-
tween Eastern Turkistan in the north and the
province of Pegu in the south. It is now how-
ever generally admitted that by Sériké was meant
the more northern parts of China, or those which
travellers and traders reached by land. At the
same time it is not to be supposed that the names
which Ptolemy in his map has spread over that
vast region were in reality names of places whose
real positions were to be found so very far east-
ward. On the contrary, most of the names are
traceable to Sanskrit sources and applicable to
places either in Kasmir or in the regions imime-
diately adjoining. This view was first advanced
by Saint-Martin, in his dissertation on the Seriké
of Ptolemy (Etude, pp. 411 ff.) where he has
discussed the subject with all his wonted acute-
ness and fulness of learning. I may translate here
his remarks on the points that are most promi-
nent: “ All the nomenclature,” he says (p. 414),
“except some names at the extreme points north

B04

und cust, is dertainly of Sanskrit origin. ..... To
the south of the mountains, in the Panjib,
Ptolemy indicates under the general name of
Kaspiraci an extension genuinely historical of the
KaSsmirian empire, with a detailed nomenclature
which ought to rest upon informations of the Ist
century of our era; whilst to the north of the
great chain we have nothing more than names
thrown at hazard in an immense space where our
meaus of actual comparison show us prodigious
displacements. This difference is explained by
the very nature of the case. The Brahmans, who
had alone been able to furnish the greater part
of the information carried from India by the
Greeks regarding this remotest of all countries,
had not themselves, as one can see from their
books, anything but the most imperfect notions.
Some names of tribes, of rivers, and of mountains,
without details or relative positions—this 1s all the
Sanskrit poems contain respecting these high
valleys of the North. It is also all that the tables
of Ptolemy give, with the exception of the purely
arbitrary addition of graduations. It is but
recently that we ourselves have become a little
better acquainted with these countries which are
so difficult of access. We must not require from
the ancients information which they could not
have had, and it is of importance also that we
should guard against a natural propensity which
disposes us to attribute to all that antiquity has
transmitted to us an authority that we do not
accord without check to our best explorers. If
the meagre nomenclature inscribed by Ptolemy
on his map, of the countries situated beyond

302

(that is to the east) of Imads, cannot lead to a
regular correspondence with our existing notions,
that which one can recognize, suffices nevertheless
to determine and circumscribe its general position.
Without wishing te carry imto this more pre-
cision than is corisistent with the nature of the
indications, we may say, that the indications,
taken colleetively, place us in the midst of the
Alpine region, whence radiate in different direc-
tions the Himalaya, the Hindu-Koh and the
Bolor chain—enormous elevations enveloped in
an immense girdle of eternal snows, and whose
cold valleys belong to different families of
pastoral tribes. Kaémir, a privileged oasis amidst
these rugged mountains, appertains itself to
this region which traverses more to the north
the Tibetan portion of the Indus (above the point
where the ancients placed the sources of the In-
dus) and whence run to the west the Oxos and
Taxartes. With Ptolemy the name of Imaos
(the Greek transcription of the usual form of
the name of Himalaya) is applied to the central
chain from the region of the sources of the
Ganges (where rise also the Indus and its
greatest affluent, the Satadru or Satlaj) to beyond
the sources of the Iaxartes. The general direc-
tion of this great axis is from south to nerth,
saving a bend to the south-east from Kasmir
to the sources of the Ganges; it is only on part-
ing from this last point that the Himalaya runs
directly to the east, and it is there also that with
Ptolemy the name ef Emdédos begins, which
designates the Eastern Himalaya. Now it 1s
on Imaos itself or in the vicinity of this grand

305

system of mountains to the north of our Panjab
and to the east of the valleys of the Hindu-Kéh
and of the upper Oxos that there come to be placed,
in a space from 6 to 7 degrees at most from south
to north, and less perhaps than that in the matter
of the longitudes, all the names which can be
identified on the map where Ptolemy has wished
to represent, in giving them an extension of nearly
40 degrees from west to east, the region which
he calls Skythia beyond Imaés and Serika. One
designation is there immediately recognizable
among all the others—that of Kasia. Ptolemy
indicates the situation of the country of Kasia
towards the bending of Imados to the east above
the sources of the Oxos, although he carries
his Montes Kasii very far away from that towards
the east; but we are sufficiently aware before-
hand that here, more than in any other part of
the Tables, we have only to attend to the no-
menclature, and to leave the notations altogether
out of account. The name of the Khasa has
been from time immemorial one of the appella-
tions the most spread through all the Himalayan
range. To keep to the western parts of the chain,
where the indication of Ptolemy places us, we
there find Khasa mentioned from the heroic ages
of India, not only in the Itihdsas or legendary
stories of the Mahdbhdrata, but also in the law
book of Manu, where their name is read by the side
of that of the Darada, another people well known,
which borders in fact on the Khaga of the north.
The KhaSa figure also in the Buddhist Chronicles
of Ceylon, among the people subdued by Aséka
in the upper Panjab, and we find them mentioned

304

in more than 40 places of the Kasmir Chronicle
among the chief mountain tribes that border on
Kasmir. Baber knows also that a people of the
name of Khas is mdigenous to the high valleys
m the neighbourhood of the Eastern Hindu-Koh ;
and, with every reason, we attach to this indigen-
ous people the origin of the name of Kashgar, which
is twice reproduced in the geography of these
high regions. Khasagiri in Sanskrit, or, ac-
cording to a form more approaching the Zend,
Khagaghairi, signifies properly the mountains of
the Khaga. The Akhasa Khéra, near the Kasia
regio, is surely connected with the same
nationality. The Aspakdrai, with a place of
the same name (Aspakara) near the Kasii Montes,
have no correspondence actually known in these
high valleys, but the form of the name connects
it with the Sanskrit or Jranian nomenclature.
Beside the Aspakarai, the Batai are found in the
Bautta of the Rijatarangint....... In the
10th century of our era, the Chief of Ghilghit took
the title of Bhatshih or Shah of the Bhat. The
Balti, that we next name, recall a people, men-
tioned by Ptolemy in this high region, the Byltai.
The accounts possessed by Ptolemy had made him
well acquainted with the general situation of the
Byltai in the neighbourhood of the Imaés, but he
is either ill mformed or has ill applied his
information as to their exact position, which he
indicates as being to the west of the great chain
of Bolor and not to the east of it, where they were
really to be found. The Ramana and the
Dasgamana, two people of the north, which the
Mahdbhdrata and the Pauranik lists mention

JOS

along with the China, appear to us not to differ
from the Rhabannae and the Damnai of Ptolemy’s
table.” Saint-Martin gives in the sequel.a few
other identifications—that of the Throanoi
(whose name should be read Phrounoi, or rather
Phaunoi as in Strabo) with the Phuna of the
Lalitavistara (p. 122)—of the Kharaunaioi
with the Kajana, whose language proves them to
be Daradas, and ef the Ithagouroi with the
Dangors, Dhagars or Dakhars, who must at one time
have been the predominant tribe of the Daradas.
The country called Asmiraia he takes, without
hesitation, to be Kaégmir itself. As regards the
name Ottorokorrha, applied by Ptolemy to a
town and a people and a range of mountains, it is
traced without difficulty to the Sanskrit—Uttara-
kuru, t.e., the Kuru of the north which figures in
Indian mythology as an earthly paradise sheltered
on every side by an encircling rampart of lofty
mountains, and remarkable fer the longevity of
its inhabitants, whe lived to be 1000 and 10,000
years old. Ptolemy was not aware that this
was but an imaginary region, and so gave it a
place within the domain of real geography. The
land of the Hyperboreans is a western repetition
of the Uttarakuru of Kasmir.

Cap, 17.

Position oF AREIA.
[Map of Asia 9.]

A reia is bounded on the north by Margiané
and by a part of Baktriané along its southern
side, as already exhibited. On the west by

39 @

306

Parthia and by the Karmanian desert along
their eastern meridians that have been defined,
on the south by Drangiané along the line which,
beginning from the said extremity towards
Karmania, and curving towards the north, turns
through Mount Bagéos towards the east on to

the extreme point which lies ......... 111° 34°
the position where the mountain curves
15-4 Sabannasiey taht euahanuccueseseesaonee saesetes 105° 32°

The Boundary on ee east is formed by the
Paropanisadai along the line adjoining the
extremities already mentioned through the
western parts of Paropanisos; the position
may be indicated at three different points, the

SOUPNEPH: docninecucsstieseacseoo note bl 36°
the northern ....ec.ccceeseevees wees LLL? 30% 89°
and the most eastern .......... ww. 19° 80’ 399

2. Anotable river flowsthrough this country
called the Areias, of which the sources that
are in Paropanisos, lie ............111° 38° 15’
and those that are in the Sariphoi..118° 33° 20’
The part along the lake called Areia, which is
below these mountains, lies in ...108° 40’ 36°

3. The northern parts of Areia are possessed
by the Nisaioi and the Astauénoi or
Astabénoi, but those along the frontier of
Parthia and the Karmanian desert by the
M asd déranoi or Mazéranoi, and those along
the frontier of Drangiané by the Kaseir6-
tai, and those along the Paropanisadai by the
Parautoi, below whom are the Obareis

307

and intermediately the Drakhamai, below
whom the Aitymandroi, then the Bor-

goi, below whom is
Skorpiophoros.

the country called

4. The towns and villages in Areia are

these :—
IDISCD ses sdeasteis ehsGanesictatesa Ges 102° 30’
Nabaris .........eeeceee renee «100° 407
Taaa ....ccsere discuauteteeretuares. 109°
PUB ANE: 46 coinecdcciputs tasanen tas 102°
Bitaxd. | swiwactiosiedueshewsousns 203° 49’
Sarmagan® .......esceeeees oe 105° 20°
DIPDALC: sccisctedvanterpeasedrtuseeaOl Lo
Rhaugara ...... iipsiassecenes .. 109° 30’

o, Zamoukhana ..,.......... 102°
Ambr0dax .... cccccesscocessesees 103° 30’
Bogadia ...secsessees enneelomnees 104° 15’
Ouarpna (Varpna) ............ 105° 30’
CoOdane. i crsee tec cieens acces 110° 30’
Phorana........... sated Sonatas 110°
Khatriskhé .........cecceccoaces 103°
Khaurina .......... senaeaustiteous 104°

6. Orthiana ............... 00 105° 15’
Tankiana ......sceceerees ssteedesd 06" 10°
PASO so sccl Av wacasceesasenesiarees 107° 40°
Arvtikaudna. scsiset sien*siacse, 109° 20°
Alexandreia of the Areians...]10°
Babarsana or Kabarsana ...... 103° 20’

Kapoutana......c. csserereeeres 104° 30’

38° 15’
38° 20’
38° 45/
38° -
88°
38° 10’
38° 15’
338° 10’
37°
37° 30’
37° 40/
37°
37° 30’
37°
36° 20°
36° 20°

36’ 20’
36°
36°
36° 10’
36°
30° 20°
35° 30°

808

7, Aveta, & CILY.. cscs. sense 405° 35°
Kaské ......... suaneserectes wieireslL0F? 20° 35° 20’
Sdteira eecseecseesesseseessesse-b08° 40% 35° 30’
OUGUKAMGs ass cusevereaereiteenionea 109° 20’ 35° 30’
NASI DIS), cautecrnicesens weuaeees eek 35° 20’
Parakanaké .......... iieeverantJo 80") 34° 20°
Sariga ..... Spel apleatiangetouee: 106° 40’ 34° 40’

8. Darkama ......... Sep aeiere TI1° 34° 20’
Kotaké .......0.. Metseutaabiedake 107° 30’ 33° 40’
VIDS ZEA: Sssnecauirseedaees ee. e. 106° 33°
ASUASATIA ecccccoccteceseesecens 105° 3o°
Zimyrva secee.eee dione laan avail 102° 30’ 33° 15’

Areia was uw small province included in Ariana,
a district cf wide extent, which comprehended
nearly the whole of ancient Persia. The smaller
district has sometimes been confounded with the
larger, of which it fornied a part. The names of
both are connected with the well-known Indian
word drya, ‘noble’ or ‘excellent. According to
Strabo, Aria was 2,000 stadia in Iength and only
300 stadia in breadth. “If,” says Wilson (Ariuna
Antiq., p. 150) “these measurements be correct,
we must contract the limits of Aria much more
than has been usually done; and Aria will be
restricted to the tract from about Meshd to the
neighbourhood of Herat, a position well enough
reconcilable with much that Strabo relates of
Aria, its similarity to Margiana in character and
productions, its mountainsand well-watered valleys
in which the vine flourished, its position as much to
the north as to the south of the chain of Taurus
or Alburz, and its being bounded by Hyrkania,

o09

Margiana, and Baktriana on the uorth, and Draw:
giana on the south.”

Mount Bagoéos, on its south-east border,
has been identified with the Ghir mountains.
The Montes Sariphiarethe Hazéras. The river
A reias, by which Aria is traversed, is the Hari
Rad or riverof Herat which, rismg at Oba
in the Paropanisan niountains, and having run
westerly past Herat, is at no great distance
lost in the sands. That it was so lost is stated
both by Strabo and Arrian. Ptolemy makes
#% terminate in a lake; and hence, Rennetl
carried it south into the Lake cof Seistin, called
by Ptolemy the Areian lake. It receives the Ferrah-
Rid, a stream which passes Ferrah or Farah,
a town which has been identified with much pro-
bability with the Phra mentioned by Isidéros in
his Mans. Parth., sec. 16. It receives also the
Etymander (now the Helmand) which gave its name
to one of the Areian tribes named by Ptolenty.

He has enumerated no fewer than 35 towns he-
longing to this sntall province, a long list which it
is not possible to verify, but a number of simall
towtis, a8 Wilson pourts out, eccur on the road from
Meshd tv Herat and thence towards Qandahar or
Kabul, and some of these may he represented in
the Table urider forms more or less altered. The
capital of Areia,according to Strabo and Arrian,was
Artakoana (v. ll. Artakakna, Artakana) and this is
no doubt the Artikaudna of Ptolemy, which he
places on the banks of the Areian lake about two-
thirds of a degree north-west of his Alexandreia of
the Areians. The identification of this Alexandreia
is uncertain; most probably it was Herat, or some

310

place in its neighbourhood. Herat is called by
eriental writers Hera, a form under which the
Areia of the ancients is readily to be recognized.
Ptolemy hasa city of this name, and Wilson
(Ariana Antiqua, p. 152), is of opinion that “ Arta-
koana, Alexandria and Aria are aggregated in
Herat.” With reference to Alexandria he quotes
a memorial verse current among the inhabitants
of Herat: ‘It is said that Hari was founded by
Lohrasp, extended by Gushtasp, improved by
Bahman and completed by Alexander.” The
name of Soteira indicates that its founder was
Antiokhos Sotér.

Cap. 18.
PosITION OF THE PAROPANISADAL,
[Map of Asta 9.]

1. The Paropanisadai are bounded on
the west by Areia along the aforesaid side, on the
north by the part of Baktriané as described, on
the east by a part of India along the meridian
line prolonged from the sources of the river
Oxos, through the Kaukasian mountains as far
as a terminating point which
lies in ......08. siebRiaaey Guan we L1L9° 30" 39°
und on the south by Arakhdsia along the line
connecting the extreme points already deter-
mined.

2. The following rivers enter the country—
the Dargamaneés, which belongs to Bak-
triané, the position of the sources of which has

31]

been already stated ; and the river which falls
into the K 6a, of which the
BOUTOES 116. hoshesieretuainssces 115° 34° 30’.

3. The northern parts are possessed by the
Bélitai, and the western by the Aristo-
phyloi, and below them the Parsioi, and
the southern parts by the Parsyétai, and
the eastern by the Am bautai.

4, The towns and villages of the Paro-
panisadai are these :—
PArsiane: 4 sacscwacsdiis con aasounes 118° 30’ 38° 45/
Barzaura .€......sceccescessievee Ll 4? 37° 307
Artoarta .....ccccccceeees ee ee .-116° 30’ 37° 30’
Baborana ....... Pirsiebiian she 118° 37° 10’
KReaiIGh saa sacnoetecens ehousgueaacnes 118° 40’ 37° 30’
Niphanda. ws cease citansaserecons 119° 37°
DPastoka: cis areicedertassiebits 116° 36° 30/
Gazaka or Gaudzaka .........118° 30’ 36° 15’

5. Naulibis ......... iene 17? 35° 30’
PNESIAs Au once cag on tener veaneauns 113° 30’ 35°
POR NATAL 4 siiaitcrcemeonene aes cas 118° 34°
Daroakanas.......ccceccecsccsnenes 118° 30’ 34° 20’
Karoura,called also Ortospana.118° 35°
Parbakanai ic ccacvetencterseseanes 114° 20’ 33° 40-
Bagarda- ciivaxessnnaseandatace 116° 40’ 38° 40°
Argouda....... bene Mcneeseee 118° 45’ 33° 30’

The tribes for which Paropanisadai was a

collective name were located along the southern and
eastern sides of the Hindu-Kush, which Ptolemy
calls the Kaukasos, and of which his Paropanisos
formed a part. In the tribe which he calls the

312

Bélitai we may perhaps have the Kabolitae, or
people of Kabul, and in the Am bautaithe Am-
bashtha of Sanskrit. The Parsyétai have also
a Sanskrit name—‘ mountaineers,’ from parvata,
‘a mountain,’ so also the Parautoi of Areia.
The principal cities of the Paropanisadai were
Naulibis and Karoura or Ortespana.
Karoura is also written as Kaboura and in this form
makes a near approach to Kabul, with which it has
been identified. With regard to the other name of
this place, Ortospana, Cunningham (Ane. Geog. of
Ind., p. 35) says: ‘I would identify it with Kabul
itself, with its Bala Hisar, or ‘ high fort,’ which
I take to be a Persian translation of Ortospana or
Urddhasthana, that is, high place or lofty city.”
Ptolemy mentions two rivers that crossed the
country of the Paropanisadai—the Dargamanés
from Baktriana that flowed northward to join the
Oxos, which Wilson (Ariana Antiqua, p. 160) takes
to be either the Dehas or the Gori river. If it
was the Dehas, then the other river which
Ptolemydoes not name, but which he makes to be
a tributary of the K6a, may be the Sarkhab or
Gori river, which, however, does not join the Kéa
but flows northward to join the Oxos. P&nini
mentions Pargusthana, the country of the Parsus,
a warlike tribe in this reign, which may corres-
pond to Ptolemy’s Parsioi or Parsyetai.*? The
following places have been identified :—
Parsiana with Pafijshir; Barzaura with
Bazarak; Baborana with Parwin; Dras-
toka with Istargarh; Parsia (capital of the

* See Beal’s Bud. Rec. of Wn. Count. vol. IT, p. 285n.

O13

Parsii) with Farzah, and Lok harna with Logarh
south of Kabul.

Carp. 19.
PosiTIoN OF DRANGIANE.
[Map of Asia 9.]

Drangiané is bounded on the west
and north by Areia along the line already
described as passing through Mount Bagéos, and
on the east by Arakhésia along the meridian
line drawn from an extreme point lying in the
country of the Areioi and that of the Paropa-
nisadai to another extreme point, of which the
POSICION: 18-1 ccutodeedse means: 111° 30’ 28’
and onthe south by a part of Gedrosia ‘along
the line joining the extreme points already
determined, passing through the Baitian
mountains.

2. There flows through the country a river
which branches off from the Arabisof which
the sources lie ........00.0 seers: 109° 32° 307

3. The parts towards Areia are possessed by
the Daraundai, and those towards Arakhdsia
by the Baktrioi, the country intermediate
is called Tatakéné.

4. The towns and villages of Drangiané
are said to be these :—

Prophthasa: sgesersewectevewese 1 10° 32° 20°
Rhonda .....eceecase sissies 106° 30’ 31° 30’
40 a

314

inna ....... SGiahunwuliecsmentzas 109° 31° 30°
Arikada.......00. wi bid huseeeuesee. 110° 20’ 31° 20’
5. Asta ....... wadenwettocueeuaes 117° 30’ 30° 40’
APEIATO .cccavsesccscccesscentes 106° 20’ 29° 15’
Nostana .....ccccceeeee vasteageeel 8? 29° 40’
Pharazana .......00cec eoaiiees he 110° 30°
DilGis.cpcvpacad etua cessed ieweoes 111° 29° 4.0
AIRS DO wey toepaliece-scveucennaiees 108° 40’ 28° 407
Arana....... (ae ee ena nen sen aes 111° 28° 15’

Drangiané corresponds in general position
and extent with the province now called Seistan.
The inhabitants were called Drangai, Zarangae,
Zarangoi, Zarangaioi and Sarangai. The name,
according to Burnouf, was derived from the
Zend word, zarayo, ‘a lake,’ a word which is
retained in the name by which Ptolemy’s Areian
lake is now known—Lake Zarah. The district was
mountainous towards Arakhésia, which formed
its eastern frontier, but in the west, towards
Karmania, it consisted chiefly of sandy wastes.
On the south it was separated from Gedrosia by the
Baitian mountains, those now called the Washati.
Ptolemy says it was watered by a river derived
from the Arabis, but this is a gross error, for the
Arabis, which is now called the Purali, flows from
the Baitian mountains in an opposite direction from
Drangiana. Ptolemy has probably confounded the
Arabis with the Etymander or Helmand river which,
as has already been noticed, falls into Lake Zarah.

Ptolemy has portioned out the province among
three tribes, the Darandai (Drangai?) on the
north, the Baktrioi to the south-east, and the
people of Tatakéné between them.

old

The capital was Prophthasia which was
distant, according to Eratosthenes, 1500 or 1600
stadia from Alexandria Arecidn (Herat). Wilson
therefore fixes its site at a place called Peshawa-
run, which is distant from Herat 183 miles, and.
where there were relics found of avery large city.
This place les between Dushak and Phra, i.e.
Farah, a little to the north of the lake. These
ruins are not, however, of ancient date, and it is
better therefore. to identify Prophthasia with
Farah which represents Phra or Phyrada, and
Phrada, according to Stephanos of Byzantium, was
the name of the city which was called by
Alexander Prophthasia (Bunbury, vol. I, p. 488).
Dashak, the actual capital of Seistan, is probably
the Zarang of the early Muhammadan writers
which was evidently by its name connected with
Drangiana. In the Persian cuneiform inscription
at Behistun the country is called Zasaka, as:
Rawlinson has pointed out (see Smith’s Dic-
tionary, 8. v. Drangiana). The place of next
importance to the capital was Ariaspé, which
Arrian places on the Etymander (Anab., lib. IV,
c. vii). The people were called Ariaspai at first,.
or Agriaspai, but afterwards Euergetai,—a title
which they had earned by assisting Cyrus at a
time when he had been reduced to great straits.

Cap. 20.
Position OF ARAKHOSIA.
Arakh6dsia is bounded on the west by
Drangiané, on the north by the Paropanisadai,
along the sides already determined, on the east
by the part of India lying along the meridian

316

line extended from the boundary towards the
Paropanisadai as far as an extreme point
lying ....... Giosaleranndeacsacenas 119° 28°
and on the south by the rest of Gedrésia
along the line joining the extreme points
already determined threugh the Baitian range.
2. Aviver enters this country which branch-
es off from the Indus of which the sources

lie in ........ alewocstieds donteges 114° 32° 30’
and the divarication (¢xrpom))
GN geskeaweenunskoaaghoheetcap ogres 121° 30’ 27° 30’

and the part at the lake formed by it which
is called Arakhétos Kyréné (fountain)—
lies in....... isimeerseemdeawene 115° 8° 40’
3. The people possessing the north parts of
the country are the Parsy étai, and those
below them the Sy droi, after whom are the
Rhoploutaiand the Kéritai
4 Thetowns and villages of Arakhosia
are said to be these :—

Ozola (or Axola) ...cc..eseeeeee 114° 15’ = 382° 15’
PHORM outed ot ereewtiaa sive 118° 15’ 32° 10’
Avi GeO wascesesiy deat gis taousanes 113° 31° 20’
Alexandveia ...cccscssosssreces 114° 31° 20’
AL IGANG: ai SOS eican eee cena subanon 115° 31° 307
Arbaka, ...ccecessees pertoatactect 118° 31° 20’
SIGATH. casheasssaaatieevorecinsaes 113° 15” 30°
KNGAs Pthoivavenicoaqnstaesente ae: 115° 15’ 30° 10’
5B. Arakhdtos.......cccceseeees 118° 30° 207
ASA wtliesdnecetioieaeah eres 112° 20% 29° 20’

Gammake secs disicsacncsvteaeveds 116° 20’ 29° 20’

317

Moaliane: 4c wera sewus dbo: 29° 20"
Dammana ....... cipaaunpsicuseetes 113° 28° 20’

Arakhosia comprised a considerable portion
of Eastern Afghanistan. It extended westward
beyond the meridian of Qandahdar and its eastern
frontier was skirted by the Indus. On the north
it stretched to the mountains of Ghir, the
western section of the Hindu-Kush, and on
the south to Gedrésia from which it was sepa-
rated by the Baitian mountains, a branch of the
Brahui range. The name has been derived from
Haragiati, the Persian form of the Sanskrit
Sarasvati, a name frequently given to rivers (being
a compound of saras, ‘flowing water,’ and the
affix vat?) and applied among others to the river
of Arakhdsia. The province was rich and popu-
lous, and what added greatly to its importance,
it was traversed by one of the main routes by
which Persia communicated with India. The
principal river was that now called the Helmand
which, rising near the Koh-i-bab’ range west of
Kabul, pursues a course with a general direction to
the south-west, and which, after receiving from
the neighbourhood of Qandahar the Argand-ab
with its affuents, the Tarnak and the Arghasan,
flows into the lake of Zarah. Ptolemy mentions
only one river of Arakhdsia and this, in his map, is
represented as rising in the Paryétai mountains
(the Hazdras) and flowing into a lake from which
it issues to fall into the Indus about 33 degrees
below its junction with the combined rivers of the
Panjib. This lake, which, he says, is called Ara-
khotos Kréné, he places at a distance of not less
than 7 degrees from his Areian lake. In the text

318

he says that the river is an arm of the Indus, a
statement for which it is difficult to find a reason.

The capital of Arakhdésia was Arakhotos,
said by Stephanos of Byzantium to have been
founded by Semiramis. Regarding its identifi-
cation Mr. Vaux (Smith’s Dictionary, s. v.) says:
* Some difference of opinion has existed as to the
exact position of this town, and what modern city
or ruins can be identified with the ancient capital P
M. Court has identified some ruins on the Arghasan
river, 4 parasangs from Qandahar, on the road to
Shikarpur, with those of Arakhétos, but these Prof.
Wilson considers to be too much to the S.E.
Rawlinson (Jour. Geog. Soc., vol. XII, p. 113)
thinks that he has found them at a place now
called Ulin Robat. He states that the most
ancient name of the city, Kophen, mentioned by
Stephanos and Pliny, has given rise to the territo-
rial designation of Kipin, applied by the Chinese
to the surrounding country. The ruins are of a
very remarkable character, and the measurements
of Strabo, Pliny, and Ptolemy are, he considers,
decisive as to the identity of the site. Stephanos
has apparently contrasted two cities—Arakhosia,
which he says is not far from the Massagetae, and
Arakhdotas, which he calls a town of India. Sir
H. Rawlinson believes the contiguity of the
Massagetae and Arakhdsia, may be explained by
the supposition that by Massagetae, Stephanos
meant the Sakai, who colonized the Hazara
mountains on their way from the Hindu-Kush to
Sakastén or Seistéin.” Another account of the
origin of the name Seistdn is that it is a corrup-
tion of the word Saghistan, 72. e., the country of

319

the saghis, a kind of wood which abounds in the
province and is used as fuel. Arakhosia, according
to Isidoros of Kharax, was called by the Parthians
“White India.”

Car. 21.
Position oF GEDROSIA.

Gedrésia is bounded on the west by
Karmania along the meridian line, already de-
termined as far as the sea, and en the north by
Drangiané and Arakhésia along the separate
meridian lines passing through these countries,
and on the east by part of Indiaalong the river
Indus following the line prolonged from the
boundary towards Arakhésia to its termination
at the sea in .v...eeeseseee vases OO? 20°
and on the south by a part of the Indian Ocean.
It is thus described through its circuit.

2. After the extremity towards Karmania
the mouth of the River Arabis 105° 20° 15’
the sources of the river ...... 110° 27° 307
the divarication of the river

entering Drangiané .........107° 80’ 25°

Rhagiraua, a city ...............106° 20°
Women’s Haven (Gynaikén

limit) citnersess aevanydeeaae: 107° 20° 15’
KO1dMbas «accabssieseeesteeavenans 108° 20°
Rhizana ....... puceasurecaind w+-2-L08° 20% 20° 15’

After which the extreme point
at the sea already men-
tioned...... ste cen eenndie MaKe 109° 20°

320

3. Through Gedrésia run the mountains
called the Arbita, whose “extreme points
He UWssse cies pieapactpar ews 160° (107 ?) 22°
SMC” Mate Pouiceatenponhesk eel vor 26° 30’
from these mountains some rivers join the
Indus and the source of one of these
TOS: sieae/ascuve dead sen eenneeaeaG 111° 25° 30’
and also there are some streams flowing through
Gedrésia, that descend from the Baitian range.

4. The maritime parts are possessed by the
villages of the Arbitai, and the parts along
Karamania by the Parsidai (or Parsirai),
and the parts along Arakhosia by the Mausar-
n2ioi, all the interior of the country is called
Paradéné, and below it Parisiéné, after
which the parts towards the Indus river are
possessed by the Rhamnat.

5. The towns and villages of Gedrosia
are accounted to be these :—

KK Ol vsecunccecsyyaceee ews meee lias 110° 27°
Badara ...cccsscenssesvene wecndie 113° 27°
MoUSArna odisicetancissentsewonss: 115° 27° 30°
Kotte Wal a.daceaswecteests iets 118° 2h? 30"
Soxestra or SOkstra vo... cee. 118° 30’ 25° 45°
Oskana ....... caian a otorwemaeaewie 115° 26°
Parsis, the Metropolis .......,.106° 30% 28° 30’
OME. sessewncssiee Ecomtedeasares 110° 23° 307
Arbis, & CIbY cc... cer cecdenseress 105° 22° 30’
6. The islands adjacent to Gedrésia are—
AASUAIA sovneecieeae neki eigeasdees 105° 18°

Kodaud..ccccessecseees. (107 ?) 160° 30’ 17°

32]

Gedrdsia corresponds to the modern Baluch-
istin. Its coast line extended from the mouth of
the Indus to Cape Jask near the Straits, which
cpen into the Persian Gulf. Ptolemy however
assigned the greater portion of this coast toe
Karmania which according to his view must
have begun somewhere near Cape Passence.
Arrian restricted the name cf Gedrésia to the
iterior ef the country, and assigned the maritime
districts beginning from the Indus to the Arabies,
the Oreitai and the Ikhthyophagoi in succession.
The ancient and the modern names of the province,
Major Mockler tries to identify in his paper in the
Jour. BR. As. Soc., N.S., vol. XI. pp. 129-154.

The people that possessed the maritime region
immediately adjoming the Indus were called the
ArbitaiorArabies. In one of their harbours
the fleet of Nearkhos at the cutset of his memor-
able voyage was detained for 24 days waiting till
the monsoon should subside. This harbour was
found to be both safe and commodious, and was
called by Nearkhos the Port of Alexander. It is
now Karachi, the great emporium for the commerce
of the Indus. The name of the people was applied
also to a chain of mountains and to ariver, the
Arabis, now called the Purali, which falls into
the Bay of Sonmiyéni. Ptolemy’s Arabis, how-
ever, lay nearer Karmania, and may be taken
to be the Bhasul, which demarvated the western
frontier of the Oreitai, and to the east of which
the district is still known by the name of Arbu.
Ptolemy does not mention the Oreitai, but seema
to have included their territory in that of the
Arbitai.

41 a

322

The Rhamnai are placed in Ptolemy’s map in
the northern part of the province and towards the
river Indus. This race appears to have been one
that was widely diffused, and one of its branches,
as has been stated, was located among the
Vindhyas.

The Parsidai, who bordered on Karmania,
are mentioned in the Peripliis (c. xxxvii) and also
in Arrian’s Indika (¢. xxvi) where they are called
Pasireés. They gave their names to a range of
mountains which Ptolenry makes the boundary
between Gedroésia and Karmania, and also to a
town, Parsis, which formed the capital of the
whole province.

Of the other towns enumerated only one is men-
tioned im Arrian’s Indika, Gynaikén Limén,
or women’s haven, the port of Morontobara, near
Cape Monze, the last point of the Pab range of
mountains. The haven was so named because
the district around had, like Carthage, a woman
for its first sovereign.

The names of the two towns Badara and
Mousarna occur twice in Ptolemy, here as
inland towns of Gedrosia, and elsewhere as seaport
towns of Karmania. Major Mockler, who personally
examined the Makran coast from Gwadar to Cape
Jask, and has thereby been enabled to correct some
of the current identifications, has shown that
Gwadar and Badara are identical. Badara appears
in the Indika of Arrian as Barna.

I here subjoin, for comparison, a passage from
Ammianus Marcellinus which traverses the ground
covered by Ptolemy’s description of Central and
Eastern Asia. Ammianus wrote about the middle

323

of the fourth century of our era, and was a well in-
formed writer, and careful in his statement of facts.
The extract is from the 23rd Book of his History: —

AMMIANUS MarcELLINUS—Book XXIII.

“Tf you advance from Karmania into the interior
(of Asia) you reach the Hyrkanians, who border
on the sea which bears their name. Here, as the
poorness of the soil kills the seeds committed to
it, the inhabitants care but little for agriculture.
They live by hunting game, which is beyond
measure varied and abundant. Tigers show them-
selves here in thousands, and many other wild
beasts besides. I bearin mind that I have already
described the nature of the contrivances by which
these animals are caught. {It must not be sup-
posed, however, that the people never put hands
to the plough, for where the soil is found richer
than usual the fields are covered with crops. In
places, moreover, that are adapted for being plant-
ed-out, gardens of fruit-trees are not wanting,
and the sea also supplies many with the means of
livelihood. Two rivers flow through the country
whose names are familiar to all, the Oxus and
Maxera. Tigers at times, when pressed by hun-
ger on their own side of these rivers, swim over to
the opposite side and, before the alarm can be raised,
ravage all the neighbourhood where they land.
Amidst the smaller townships there exist also cities
of great power, two on the sea-board, Socunda
and Saramanna, and the others inland—
Azmorna and Solen, and Hyrkana, which
rank above the others. The country next to this
people on the north is said to be inhabited by the

oo4

Abii, a most pious race of men, accustomed to
despise all things mortal, and whom Jupiter (as
Homer with his over-fondness for fable sings) looks
down upon from the summits of Mount Ida. The
seats immediately beyond the Hyrkanians form the
dominions of the Margiani, who are nearly on
all sides round hemmed in by high hills, and conse-
quently shut out from the sea. Though their
territory is for the most part sterile, from the
deficiency of water, they have nevertheless some
towns, and of these the more notable are Jasonion
and Antiochia and Niswa. The adjoining region
belongs to the Baktriani, a nation hitherto
addicted to war and very powerful, and always
troublesome to their neighbours, the Persians,
before that people had reduced all the surrounding
states to submission,and absorbed them into their
own name and nationality. In old times, however,
even Arsakes himself found the kings who ruled
in Baktriana formidable foes to contend with.
Most parts of the country are, like Margiana, far
Gistant from the sea, but the soil is productive,
and the cattle that are pastured on the plains and
hill-sides, are compact of structure, with limbs
both stout and strong, as may be judged from
the camels which were brought from thence by.
Mithridates and seen by the Romans during the
siege of Cyzicus, when they saw this species of
animal for the first time. A great many tribes,
among which the ‘Fochari are the most dis-
tinguished, obey the Baktrians. Their country is
watered, like Italy, by numerous rivers, and of
these the Arte mis and Zariaspes after their
anion, and in like manner th combined Ochus

825

and Orchomanes, swell with their confluent
waters the vast stream of the Oxos. Here also
cities are to be found, and these are laved by dif-
ferent rivers. The more important of them are
Chatra and Charte and Alicodra and Astacia and
Menapila, and Baktra itself, which is both the
capital and the name of the nation. The people, who
live at the very foot of the mountains, are called
the Sogdii, through whose country flow two
rivers of great navigable capacity,the Araxates
and Dymas, which rushing impetuously down
from the mountains and passing into a level plain,
form a lake of vast extent, called the Oxian. Here,
among other towns, Alexandria, and Kyreschata,
and Drepsa the Metropolis, are well known to fame.
Contiguous to the Sogdians are the Sacae, an un-
civilized people, inhabiting rugged tracts that yield
nothing beyoud pasture for cattle, and that are,
therefore, unadorned with cities. They lie under
Mounts Askanimiaand Komedus. Beyond
the valleys at the foot of these mountains and the
village which they call Lithinon Pyrgon
(Stone Tower) lies the very long road by which
traders pursue their journey who start from this
point to reach the Séres. In the parts around
are the declivities by which the mountains called
Imaus and the Tapourian range, sink down to the
level of the plains. The Skythians are located
within the Persian territories, being conterminous
with the Asiatic Sarmatians, and touching
the furthest frontier of the Alani, They live, as
it were, a sort of secluded life, and are reared in
solitude, being scattered over districts that lie far
apart, and that yield fur the sustenance of life a

326

mean and scanty fare. The tribes which inhabit
these tracts are various, but it would be superfluous
for me to enumerate them, hastening as I am to
a different subject. One fact must, however, be
stated, that there are in these communities which
are almost shut out from the rest of mankind by
the inhospitable nature of their country, some men
gentle and pious, as for instance, the Jaxartes
and the Galaktophagi, mentioned by the poet
Homer in this verse:
TAakropayay aBieavre Sixatordrav dvéperav.

‘“‘ Among the many rivers of Skythia which either
fall naturally into larger ones, or glide onward to
reach at last the sea, the Roe mn us is of renown,
andthe Jaxartesandthe Talicus, butof cities
they are not known to have more than but three,
Aspabotaand Chauriana and Saga.

“‘ Beyond these places in the two Skythias and
on their eastern side lie the Séres, who are girt
in by a continuous circle of lofty mountain-peaks,
and whose territory is noted for its vast extent
and fertility. On the west they have the Sky-
thians for their next neighbours, and on the
north and east they adjoin solitudes covered
over with snow, and on the south extend as far
as India and the Ganges. The mountains refer-
red to are called Anniva and Nazavicium and
Asmira and Emodon and Opurocara. Through
this plain which, as we have said, is cinctured
on all sides by steep declivities, and through
regions of vast extent, flow two famous rivers, the
Gchardes andthe Bautisus, with a slower
current. The country is diversified in its character,
here expanding into open plains, and there rising

327

in gentle undulations. Hence it is marvellously
fruitful and well-wooded, and teeming with cattle.
Various tribes inhabit the most fertile districts, and
of these the Alitrophagi and Annibi and
Sizy ges and Chardi are exposed to blasts from
the north and to frosts, whilethe Rabannae and
Asmirae and Essedones, who outshineallthe
other tribes, look towards the rising sun. Next to
these, on their western side, are the Athagorae
and the Aspacarae. The Betae, again, are
situated towards the lofty mountains fringing the
south, andare famed for their cities which, though
few in number are distinguished for their size and
wealth ; the largest of them being Asmira, and
Essedonand Asparataand Sera, which are
beautiful cities and of great celebrity. The Séres
themselves lead tranquil lives, and are averse to
arms and war, and since people whose temper is
thus sedate and peaceful relish their ease, they
give no trouble to any of their neighbours. They
enjoy a climate at once agreeable and salubrious ;
the sky is clear and the prevailing winds are
wonderfully mild and genial. The country is
well-shaded with woods, and from the trees the
inhabitants gather a product which they make
into what may be called fleeces by repeatedly
besprinkling it with water. The material thus
formed by saturating the soft down with moisture
is exquisitely fine, and when combed out and spun
into woof is woven into silk, an article of dress
formerly worn only by the great, but now
without any distinction even by the very poorest.**

“ It was a notion long prevalent that silk was combed
from the leaves of trees. Thus Virgil (Georg. II, 121)

328

The Séres themselves live in the most frugal
manner, more so indeed than any other people in
the world. They seek after a life as free as
possible from all disquiet, and shun intercourse
with the rest of mankind. So when strangers
cross the river into their country to buy their
silks or other commodities, they exchange no
words with them, but merely intimate by their looks
the value of the goods offered for sale; and so
abstemious are they that they buy not any foreign
products. Beyond the Séres live the Ariani, ex-
posed to the blasts of the north wind. Through
their country flows a navigable river called the
Arias, which forms a vast lake bearing the same
name. This same Aria has numerous towns,
among which Bitana Sarmatina, and Sotera and
Nisibis and Alexandria are the most notable. If
you sail from Alexandria down the river to the
Caspian Sea the distance is 1,500 stadia. _

Immediately adjoining these places are the P a-
ropanisatae, who look on the east towards the
Indians and on the west towards Caucasus, lying
themselves towards the slopes of the mountains.
The River Ortogordomaris, which is larger than
any of the others, and rises among the Baktriam,
flows through their territory. They too, have some
towns, of which the more celebrated are Agazaca
and Naulibus and Ortopana, from which the navi-

‘‘ Velleraque ut foliis depectant tenuia Seres.’’ Strabo
(XV, i, 20) describes silk as carded off the bark of certain
trees. Pausanias, who wrote about 180 A.D. is the first
classical author who writes with some degree of correct-
ness about silk and the silk-worm. Conf. P. Mela, i, 2,
3; iii, 7,1; Pliny, VI, 17, 20; Prop. i, 14, 22; Sol. 50;
Isid, Orig. xix, 17, 6; ib. 27, 5.

329

gation along the coast te the borders of Media in
the immediate neighbourhood of the Caspian
Gates extends to 2,200 stadia. Contiguous to the
Paropanisatae just named are the Drangiani,
seated quite close to the hills and watered by a
river called the Arabian, because it rises in
Arabia. Among their other towns they have two
to boast of in particular, Prophthasia and Ariaspe,
which are both opulentand famous. After these,
and directly confronting them, Arachosia
comes into view, which on its right side faces the
Indians. It is watered by a stream of copious
volume derived from the Indus, that greatest of
rivers, after which the adjacent regions have been
named. This stream, which is less than the
Indus, forms the lake called Arachotoscrene.
The province, ameng other important cities, has
Alexandria and Arbaca and Cheaspa. In the very
interior of Persia is Gedrosia, which on the
right touches the Indian frontier. It is watered
by several streams, of which the Artabius is the
most considerable. Where it is inhabited by the
Barbitani the mountains sink down to the
plains. A number of rivers issue from their very
base to join the Indus, and these all lose their
names when absorbed into that mightier stream.
Here too, besides the islands there are cities, of
which Sedratyra and Gunaiken Limen (Women’s
haven) are considered to be superior to the others.
But we must bring this description here to an
end, lest in entering into a minute account of the
seaboard on the extremities of Persia we should
stray too far from the proper argument.”

42 G

APPENDIX OF ADDITIONAL NOTES.

1. On the latitude of Syenbun and of
Tash-Kurghan—(p. 14).

Ptolemy, like Hipparkhos and all the ancients
except Strabo, erroneously took the latitude of
Byzantium (41°1’) to be the same as that of
Marseilles (43° 18’). The latitude of Tdash-
kurghan in the Pamfr is 37° 46’ and its longi-
tude 75° 10’ E.; the latitude of Tashkend is
42° 58’, and that of Och or Ush (near which
there is a monument called at this day the Takht-
i-Suleiman, ‘Throne of Soliman,’ which Heeren
took to be the veritable stone tower of Ptolemy)
is 40° 19’.

2. On Kouroula—(pp. 22, 63, and 64).

Lieut.-Colonel Branfill (Names of Places in
Tanjore, p. 8), thinks this may be represented
by Kurla or Koralai-gorla on the East Coast.
‘There is,’ he points out, “ Gorlapilem near
Nizdmpattanam. (Cf. Vingorla, South Concan,
Malabar Coast).”

8. Argaric Gulf and Argeirou (pp. 22, 59, and
60).

Branfill in the work cited (pp. 8 and 9) says :-—
« Arrankarai(pronounced nowadays Atrankarai),
at the mouth of the Vagai looks very like the
ancient ‘Argari, and ‘Sinus Argalicus’ (Yule),
the Argaric Gulf . . Ayyedpov looks like Anaikarai,
the ancient name of Adam’s Bridge, so called by
the Tamils as being the bridge or causeway par
excellence ..... In the middle ages, before
Pamban was separated from the mainland by the

332

storm that breached the famous causeway, there
is said to have been a great city, remains of
which are still to be seen on the spit of sand
opposite to Pamrban.” Ay xeipov in Nobbe’s edition
appears as Apyeipov. g

4. On Thelkheir—(pp. 68 and 64).

Branfill (p. 12), would identify this with Chid-
ambaram—‘ the town between the Vellarand Kot-
ladam (Coleroon) rivers, .... from chit = wis-
dom, and ambara, horizon, sky; = Heaven of
Wisdom. Tillai, or Tillaivanam is the former
name of this place, and it is familiarly known as
Tillai ever now amongst the natives. May not
this be the ancient Thellyr and Gedyeip of Pto~
lemy and the ancient. geographers? But perhaps
Tellfr (near Vandavasi) may be it.” Tillai, he
points out (p. 30), is a tree with milky sap.

5. On Orthoura—(pp. 64 and 184).

Branfill (pp. 7 and 8), identifying this, says :—=
“ Orattdr (pronounced Oratthirw)is found repeat-
edly in this (Kavéri Delta) and the adjacent
districts, and may represent the ‘Orthura’ of
ancient geographers, for which Colonel Yule’s Map
of Ancient India gives Ureiyour, and Professor
Lassen’s Wadiur.”

6. On Arkatos—(p. 64).

Branfill, who takes this to designate a place
and not a king, says (p- 11):—“ Arkad or Aru-
kadu — six forests ; the abode of six Rishis in old
times. There are several places of this name im
Tanjore and S. Arcot, besides the town of ‘ Areot’
near ‘ Vellore’ (Apxarév Bagihetov Zapa). One of
these would correspond better than that with
Harkatu of Ibn Batuta, who reached it the first

333

evening of his march inland after landing from
Ceylon, apparently on the shallow coast of Madura
or Tanjore (fourteenth century).”

7. On the River Adamas—(p. 71).

Professor V. Ball, in his Presidential Address
to the Royal Geological Society of Ireland (read
March 19, 1883), says:—‘‘ The Adamas River of
Ptolemy, according to Lassen’s analysis of the
data, was not identical with the Mahanadi, as I
have suggested in my ‘ Economic Geology ’ (p. 30),
but with the Subanrikha, which is, however, so
far as we know, not a diamond-bearing river,
nor does it at any part of its course traverse rocks
of the age of those which contain the matrix in
other parts of India. This Adamas River was
separated from the Mahanadi by the Tyndis and
Dosaron; the latter, according to Lassen, taking
its rise in the country of Kokkonaga (7.e. Chutia
Nagpur), and to which the chief town Dosara
(the modern Doesa) gave its name. But, according
to this view, the Dosaron must have been identical
with the modern Brahmini, which in that portion
of its course called the Sunk (or Koel), included a
diamond locality. I cannot regard this identifica-
tion as satisfactory, as it does not account for
the Tyndis intervening between the Dosaron and
Mahanadi, since, asa matter of fact, the Brahmini
and Mahanadi are confluent at their mouths.
Lassen, however, identifies the Dosaron with the
Baiturnee, and the Tyndis with the Brahmini.
This destroys the force of his remark, as to the
origin of the name of the former, since at its
nearest point it is many miles distant from
Doesa.”

334

8. On Mount Sardényx—(p. 77).

Professor Ball in the address above cited, says :—
“The sardonyx mines of Ptolemy are probably
identical with the famous carnelian and agate
mines of Rajpipla, or, rather, as it should be
called, Ratanpur.”

9. On Talara—(p. 90).

Branfill suggests the identification of this with
Tellar or Tillarampattu (p. 8).

10. On Pounnata—(p. 180).

“ Punddu, Punnadu, or Punnita, as it is variously
written, seems also to be indicated by the Pan-
nuta in Lassen’s Map of Ancient India according
to Ptolemy, and by the Paunata of Colonel Yule’s
Map of Ancient India, ubi beryllus.” This place is
about 70 miles to the south-east of Seringapa-
tam.

11. On Arembour—(pp. 180, 182).

Branfil—(p. 8), identifies this with Arambafir.

12. On Abour—(p. 184).

Branfill (p. 11), identifies this with “ Avar,
cow-villa, a decayed town, 5 miles S.W. of Kamba-
konam, with a temple and a long legend about a
cow(4). May not this be the ancient Abur of
the Map of Ancient India in Smith’s Classical
Atlas? Colonel Yule suggests Amboor, but this
Avar seems nearer, andif not this there are several
places in 8. Arcot named Amfar.”

13. On Argyré—(p. 196).

Professor Ball says:—‘‘ There are no silver
mines in Arakan, and considering the geological
structure of the country, it is almost certain
there never were any. I have been recently in-
formed by General Sir A. Phayre that Argyré is

330

probably a transliteration of an ancient Burmese
name for Arakan. It seems likely therefore that
it was from putting a Greek interpretation to this
name that the story of the silver-mines owed its
origin.”

14. On the Golden Khersonese—(p. 197).

“Gold,” says Mr. Colquhoun (Amongst the
Shans, p. 2), “ has been for centuries washed from
the beds of the Irrawadi, Sitang, Salween, Mékong,
and Yang-tsi-kiang rivers.” The gold-reefs of
Southern India which have of late attracted so
much notice, are, he points out, but outcrops of
the formation which extends on the surface
for thousands of square miles in the Golden
Peninsula.

15. On the Loadstone rocks (p. 242).

Professor Ball thinks these rocks may possibly
be identified with certain hill-ranges in Southern
India which mainly consist of magnetic iron
(Economic Geology of India, p. 37).

16. On the sandy deserts of Baktria (p. 270).

In the Proceedings of the Royal Geographical
Society for April last will be found a description
of the Kara-kum sands, by M. Paul Lessar, who
divides them into three classes. The burkans which
form his 3rd class are of the nature described by
Curtius. ‘The sand is wholly of a drifting
nature; the slightest puff of wind effaces the
fresh track of a caravan.” Henotices a place in
the Khanate of Bokhara where whole caravans
have been buried.

17. On the river Ochos (p. 273).

“What hitherto has been taken for the dry bed
of the Ochus is not the bed of a river, but merely

336

a natural furrow between sand-hills. Thus the bed
of the Ochus has still to be discovered.” Proceed-
angs of the Royal Geog. Socy. for April 1885.

18. On the Avestic names of rivers, &. in
Afghanistan—(pp. 305-19).

In the 1st chapter of the Vendidéd the names
are given of the sixteen lands said to have been
created by Ahura Mazda. Of these the following
nine have been thus identified by Darmesteter in
his translation of the Zend-Avesta, Sacred Books
of the East, Vol. IV. p. 2):—

Zend name. Old Persian. Greek. Modern.
Sughdha Suguda Sogdiané (Samarkand)
Mouru Margu Margiané Merv
Bakhdhi Bakhtri Baktra Balkh
Haréyu Haraiva Areia Hari-Rid

Vehrkéna Varkéna Hyrkania Jorjin
Harahvaiti Harauvati Arakhétos Hardt

Haétumant Etymandros Helmend
Ragha Raga Rhagai Rai
Hapta hindu Hindavas Indoi (Pafijab)

Some of these and other names are examined in
an article in The Academy (May 16, 1885, No.
680), signed by Auriel Stein, from which the
following particulars are gathered: ‘“ We recog-
nize the ‘powerful, faithful Mourva’ as the
modern Merv, the ‘beautiful Bdkhdhi’ as Balkh,
Haraéva as Herat, the mountain Vditigaega as the
Badhgés of recent notoriety. The river Harah-
vaiti (Sansk. Sarasvatit) has been known in suc-
cessive ages as Arakhétos and Arghand-ab; but
more important for Avestic geography is the
large stream of which it is a tributary, the
‘bountiful, glorious Haétumant, the Etyman-

337

dros and Hermandus of classic authors, the
modern Helmand.’” A passage is quoted from the
Avesta where eight additional rivers seem to be
named. ‘ At its foot (the mountain Ushidao’s, 7.e.
the Koh-i-Baba and Siah-Ko6h’s) gushes and flows
forth the Hvistra and the Hvaépa, the Fradatha
and the beautiful Hvarenavhaiti and Ustavaiti the
mighty, and Urvadha, rich of pastures, and the
Hrezi. and Zarenumaiti.” The Hvastra Stein
thinks may be the Khash-Rid, and the Hvaspa
the Khuspds-Rdid, both of which come from
the south slope of the Siah-Koh and reach the
eastern basin of the lagune where the lower
course of the Helmand is lost. “In Khuspas,”
he adds, “ta place on the upper course of the
Khuspas-Rad, we may recognize the town Khoaspa
mentioned by Ptolemy in Arakhésia. The name
hvaspa means ‘‘ having good herses,” and seems
to have been a favourite designation for rivers in
Irin. Besides the famous Khoaspés near Susa,
we hear of another Khoaspes, a tributary of the
Kabdl River.” In Kash, a town on the Khdsh-
Rad may be recognized the station called Cosata
by the Anonymous Ravennas. The Fradatha is
Pliny’s Ophradus (1.e. 6 &pados of the Greek
original) and new the Farah-Rid. The Proph-
thasia of Ptolemy and Stephanos of Byzantium
is a literal rendering ef fradatha, which in com.
mion use as neuter means (literally ‘‘ proficiency”),
‘progress,’ “increase.” The Havrenanihkaiti is
the Pharnacotis of Pliny and now the Harrit-
Rad, which like the Far4h-Rdd enters the lake
of Seistan. Farnahvati has been’ suggested a8
the original and native form of Pharnacotis.

43 ¢G

338

19. On the Griffins or Gryphons—(p. 295),

Professor Ball in a paper published in the
Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, 2nd Ser.,
Vol. IT. No. 6, pp. 312-13 (Pol. Lit. and Antiq.)
says: “In the account which Photios gives of
the Griffins, if we exclude from it the word birds,
and for feathers read hair, we have a tolerably
accurate description of the hairy black-and-tan
coloured Thibetan mastiffs, which are now, as they
were doubtless formerly, the custodians of the
dwellings of the Thibetans, those of gold-miners,
as well as of others. They attracted the special
attention of Marco Polo, as well as of many other
travellers in Thibet, and for a recent account of
them reference may be made to Capt. Gill’s
‘ River of Golden Sund.’”

339

ERRATA.

Page 8, n. 5, for Noble read Nobbe.

3”

o)

3

14, n. 12, after Tash-Kurgh&n insert its
Lat. 37° 46’ (long. 75° 4’).

20, n. for (IX XXIX1] read [|X XIX].

25, for censure in last line but one read
Use.

51, 1. 20, for Kandionoi read Pandionoi.

63, 1. 16, for outlet read outset.

64, 1. 13, omit the before Kolkhoi.

68, 1.15, for Gidré@ read Gddar.

70, 1.27, Katikardama should begin the
line after.

71, 1. 18, after Dosardén instead of the
dash insert the sign of equality (=)
and so after ‘‘ Adamas” in the next
line, and after “ Ganges” in line 21.

75, Section 21 should have been immedi-
ately followed by the next 4 sections
which appear on p. 78.

76, 1. 16, for ‘ punishment’ of the ‘ gods’
read ‘ punishment of the gods.’

80, 1. 21, for Rikshavant read Rikshavat.

81, 1. 29, for Bidasis read Bibasis.

87, 1.7, for the comma after the bracket
put period.

88, 1. 26, for Rhonadis read Rhouadis.

340

Page 124, The sections 47-50 showld have beer
placed after the notice of Iomousa or
. p. 126.

» 140, 1. 29, after ‘second group’ insert (sections
57 and 58),

y 140, last line, after ‘fourth group,’ insert
(section 64)..

sy 41,1. 15, after ‘sixth group’ imsert (section
64.)

INDEX,

PAGE

A

Abaratha ...,.. 248, 258

Abarbina.......00...000 26L
Abhiras (Abirs)...... 40
Abioi Skythai..293-6, 323
Abiria ...... 36, 136, 140
A DONE sisisearsvactes 484-5
Abragana ...ccesseeee 299
Abrana I. wcssseseseee 250
Achin .«...... pdubeeansis 240
Adamas, R.70, 71, 80, 104
Adam’s Peak ......... 256
AGarimae, ...ccereseecsess 180

Adeisamon ............ 250
Adeisathra...80, 133, 161
Adeisathroi ......... 164-6
Adeisathron.78,79, 80, 159

Adisdara... 131, 133, 161
ACrapsa 0... -cececeeee 261
Adris or Rhouadis R. 81,

90
Aganagara ...... 202, 215
Aganagora .........06 212

AG OP scccesiasivasasn LOS

PAGE

AVSIM: Viescsccoracsves, 159
Agathou daimonos

TSS sseccasveseves 200, LOS

Aghadip .......cesseees 216
Agimoitha ...... Seeeas 225
Aginnatai ......... 236-7
Agisymba...... 13 nl], 15
Agrimagara .......6000 154
Ahichhatra ...... 133, 161
ADYONL sivcccccsavedecees 128
Aigidion, Is. ......... 250
BiGt sesscescceice 53, 54, 180
Airrhadoi ..cecsseceee 191
Aithiopians.........00. 245
Aitymandroi ......... 307
Ajmir ............429, 149
AJOne «0. .ccece00 ghee 114
AKGOLS .ccsscccesenese 202-3
AKACTAL gcc ledeiven 245
Akesinés, R. ......... 89
ABBAS 6 cca vevisedarecss 293
Alcinakai ..c.csscccveses 268
AOUP ccesscisencss.sscs 183
Alaba, Is. ..scsseseeee 251

Alana, Mts. ......286, 291

342

PAGE
Alanorsol......ss0sse08. 287
Alanoi Skythai 287, 292,

325

Alexandreia in Ara-
KHOS1A: scsi swcend saweas 316
Alexandreia Areién.. 307,
309-10, 328
Alexandreia Eskhaté 277,
283, 325
Alexandria Opiane... 112
Alexandreia Oxeiané 277

Alikhorda ,..... 269, 325
Alingar, R. ...... 87, 106
Alishang, R, ......... 87
Allosygné .....0.0. 66, 68

BOG sc csscasevisssdveesce- 180
AlOr ..cs.eccesceeee 145, 152
Alosanga 225, 231
Altai, Mts....... 292, 295
Al-wakin or Lukin. 10n
Amakatis or Ama-

Kastissessavsctece 124, 127
Amarakantaka ...... 99
AMarapUT cescceceeess 230
AMAYEIS seccoesercseses 269
AMAYrOUSA soccoseseee 261
Ambashtha ....es0e 312

Ambastai ...159, 161, 245
Ambastes, R. .......6. 244

Ambautal ......... 311-312
Ambr0dax vicccsssovee OUT
Ammineé, Is. seocsees 250

Anamba, Is. cesssceee 241

INDEX.

PAGE
ATBTA cviativcsdisieece: 159
Anarea, Mts....287-8, 292
Anarismoundon, C. 248,

258
Andaman, Is.......... 237
Andarab .....e+cce0. wee 282

Andhela, R. ......... 98
Andomatis, R. ...... 98
Andrapana ...... 136, 141
Anniba, Mts....297-8, 326
AMNIESEIS ......,cccceeee 276

AMiUkhal: ii sscsevesaaes 131
ATING sas svediavevevetes 225
Aninakha ..,...132, 221-2
Anoubingara ...249, 258
Anourogrammoi. 249-50,
259
Antakhara ..sscccese 156
Antibolé, R. 73-5, 191-2
Antiokheia Margiane

(Merv) ...17, 263-4, 324
Anupshahr ............ 175
Anuradhapura ...155, 259
AOYTIOS cccccecseses 105, 143

AOYSOI coccccsoseessseee 208
Aparatote ...ccore 258
Aparytai ..ceccreesseres 116
Apokopa, Mts. ...... 70-6
Arabis, R.313-14, 319 ,321,

329
Arvabital s.ccccmsececee 159

Arakan ......-....- 196, 205
Arakhésia, 34, 315-19, 329

INDEX, 343

PAGE PAGE

Arakhotos, 20n, 34,316-18 | Arikada .....cecsscsee 314
Arakhotos Kréné. 316-17; | Arikaka .......cc00.06. 316
329 | Arimaspians ......... 295

Aral, sea Of ...060000279-82 | ATIPO civcseccseseovesee 258
AYVANA ciciescccceisecte 314 | Arisabion iste ome
Aratha .00.....000 manatnee 263 | Arispara .........124, 126
Aravali, Mts. ...... 76, 94 | Aristobathra ......... 142
Araxates, R. .....600 325 {| Aristophylai ......... 311
Araxes, R. ....s00e 280 | Arjikiya, R. ......0. 85
Arbaka ......s0006 316, 329 | ArkAd ......screee 162
APWIS®. “nnaacaceecrepertes 320 | Arkand-&ab, R. ..... 34

Arbita, Mts. ......95, 320
Arbitai or Arabies... 321
Arbuda or Abu, Mt. 76,

149
Ardha-ganga, R....... 65
ATONE cecceeeee cee 124, 128
ATCIA sacceeees 305-10, 328
Areian Lake. 306, 314,328
Areias, R. cesses 306, 328
Arembour ..... 180, 182
AYLZadina ...scecseeeeees 263
Argalou wse..ccoree 60
Argandab, R. ...... 317
Argaric Gulf ......... 22
AYQZEIVOU seceseeseceeees 59
ALZOUA seoserecesveses 311
AYZyYVa — ssovee jeessans 196
Arxiaka sscccscesscesssaee 263

Ariakai owawsesas oor
ATIOKG: ayieus cess 175, 179
Ariaké Sadinon ...... 39
Ariaspé ......d14-15, 329

Arkatos sescsoec 64, 162
Arkhinara ....csse000 225
ArMagara o000. 06060645, 48
Ardmata (Cape Guar-

GaLUl) siasseaceveraes 27
AYOR csteiseseensiess 83, 151
Arouarnoi (Arvar-

VOL): ssesseues . 65-6, 185
AYRES. scvasneriseceesiss 118
Arsagalitae ..ccccoses » 118
APBIEIS ciscsacsuseasdetecs 261
Artakoana ......cee0 309
Artamis, R. 268, 273, 324
Artikaudna ...... 307, 309
Artoarta ...136, 141, 311
Arukgam Bay ...... 258
Asanabara .scccccsssee 220
IGIANG se va. Siceate tonnes 316
Asigramma ...... 142, 143

Asikni, R. .........85, 89
ASiNGA scree cersecceeese 149
Asini eveesacoseseeganses 125

344 INDEX
PAGE PAGE
ASIOL .ccceeee Seventy ee 272 | Augara wees \egeaas 307
Asidtai ........ Sebauienns 288 | Auxakia ......sccce00. 294
Askatangkas, R. 265, Auxakian, Mts. 293-4, 298
284-5, 288 | Auxoamis or Axumis 149
ASMANOL sseseoceecs sie 2ST lt AVENE cascdssieadegicoss 154
Asmiraia, Mts. 298, 305, | Ayddhya ...... 166, 228-9
326 | Azania (Ajan) ......... 76
ASMOUTNA wsssccceeeee 261 | Azanos, R. ... 248-9, 257
Aspathis Seater tes eile . 164 ADIKA. sicccsserseciancee L42
Aspakarai...299, 304, 327 | AzMOrna ....cceeee 32S
Aspabota .........286, 326
Aspisia, Mts....287-8, 291
Aspithra ecco wvee D445 B
Assak6énol .sescocceeee LL]
ASta ccccsoccccsescenceeese B14 | Babarsana or Kabar-
Astab6noi .eceeeseeees 306 RAVE aldascieosiscioses 307
Astakana ...... 269, 325 | Baborana............ 311-12
Astakapra ......++ 148, 150 | Badakshan...... 12 n9, 83
Astasana ....ceeecceeee 308 | Baddmi ............... 17
Asthagoura seecisicee 167 Badara, ...-cccccses 320, 322
Astauda ............... 307 | Badiamaioi ...... 167, 171

Astauénoior Astabé-

TOL asashouceestesensa. O00
Asthaia, Is. .......0660. 320
AStraASSOS ...seneee 124, 126
ACGIES Seciutiesces 118, 142
Athénogouron ...... 225
Athens ccccescssvewevaes, 220
AtYASA ...cccccecccscacee 126
Atrek, R. .........262, 273
Attaba, R....... 198, 208-9
Audh Sseuieeseier ee
Augaloi séiSileneaeier CEO

Baetis(Guadalquivir,

Bi): cafecddeseavavees. 20
Bag or Bagmandla 47
Bagarda ...ccocsecreee SIL
Bagoos ...sseceeees 306, 309
Bahruj esosseccsssesss 42
Baital oso . 159
Baithana ....6. 79, 175-6
Baitian, Mts.... 314, 317,

320

Bakarel ...sceseseee 049, 52
Baktra 18, 271-2, 278, 325

INDEX 345

PAGE PAGE

Baktriané ...267-74, 324-5 | Bardamana ....sccceos 185

Baktrioi ...scecsccseeee 313 | Bardadtis............... 163

Balaka, Is. ........... 2590 | Bardiwad ........... 166

Balantipyrgon ...164, 166 | Bardaxéma.........38, 37

Balas6r .cseeeseeeeeeee 72 | Bardhwan ......e000 . 174

Baleopatam = ...+..++ AS | Bardia. ecccesssecesereees 37
Bali, Is. ......ssece0e 241 | Barenkora(or Baren-

Bali ta: seresan a seneeedee 142 BUITA) ced coeseseccuss lO

Balita, .csccoccessesevees 9D
sone ssavedO9, 274

Balkh

Balonga ..ssseccccceree 202
Balongka .s..seseeee . 226
Baltipatna ......6. 39, 45
Bambhara .....e.eeee 148
Bammala ......4666..00, 50

Bammogoura ......... 154
Banagara ....ee. 136, 141
Banaouasei ...... 176, 178
Bandras secceeeee 129, 228 ©
Bandobéneé .......s000 87
Bandogarh ............ 166

DADs: ses savsvecsseeeusy 240

Banna or Banu...... 141
Barabanga, R. ...... 74
Barago, O. .sesce seers 197

Baraké .....++....36, 187-8
Barakés, R. ...248-9, 257
Barakoura ......191, 195
Bavangé scoscccccsssers 261
Barbarel ....ccsesseeees
Barbarikon ......csee0
Barborana
Barcelor cesscccsecersee 50

44 G

Baris, R.49, 53, 78, 103,180
Barna: 4cnceovievivaeis Ole
Barona, R. .......c0088 69

’ Barousai, Is....236, 238-9

Barrhai ...... ess eee 222-4
Barygaza. 38, 40, 49, 77,
152-3

Barzaura .....0ee0.-dL1-12
Basanadrai ......66. v2.3
Baskatis, R. ......... 275

Bassa, Is. ...... 250, 259
Bassein ..,...... 44, 197
Batai ...... 299, 304, 327
Bato wiadkeredecs 63, 183-4

Batanagara...... 124, 127
Batangkaisara...128, 130
Batrakheian Sea ... 246
Batticalao .........00. 258
Bautisos, R. ... 298, 326
Bazakata, Is. ...,.. 236-7
Bear, Mt.(Ouxenton). 100
BeCare waisiieriitisens: “De
Bedasta, R........... &9
Begram
Belas, R. scseessecee 90

346 INDEX,
PAGE PAGE
Benagouron ....... 171 | Bidaspés, R....81, 89, 109
Benda or Binda. 39, 41, | Bideris............ccses 180
103.175: |! Bigis' > cessetceisasden ens 314
Bentote, R.....s.sseeee 257 | Bilhari......ccscccseceee 167
Bépur ..csecrsreseeereee 50 Binagara ....ecce 145, 151

Bépyrrhos, Mts.. 102, 204,

208, 221
Bérabai . 196-7
DOL hes iecisaceseinee 184
Béttigé, Mt. ...... 59, 78
Beseidal ...s.sesccseees 217
Besmeid ...cseveceevees 148
Besynga, R.......196, 205
Besyngeitai ...... 196, 219
Bettigoi...... 159, 160, 166

Bhadar, R. «cscs 387
Bhadravati ...secceeeee 163
Bhandak ....c0sceceeee. 166
Bhanzas «inviiuwwsi 223
Bharaod ...cccsessecsee 163
Bharéch .....ssseeeeeee 216
Bharoch ........66..08, 153

Bhars or Bhors ...... 224
Bhatnair ...ccccccseveee 127
Bhaulingi .ees-esseee 163
Bhaunagar......... 37, 150
BHTIS:. cowsuesieetesns ves 160
Bhilea .rsccoscscsccesses 122
Bhima, R. ....eceeee 41
Bhiwandi, R. .......0. 42
BhOjapar ....ceceeeeeeee 163
Bhota s.cccocccses 192, 206
Bibasis, R. wcsssseereee 190

Bintenne ........es0000. 209
Biolingai or Bolingai. 163
Bisa ..ccscececeesesees 131

Bitaxa ..ccccscsecessess OOF
BOgadia: y.r0sieetscsee 307
Bodhbpayr ...cscccceseees 151
Bokana ..0106..1000 248, 258
BOKanO1 cee ceeee: cose 250
Bokbava: sesasssescseves 30
Bolitai .....6...0080. d11-12
Bolor, Mts..........d0, 802
Bombay ...ccesseseeees 43-4
Bonis vee vee 142, 145
Boraita......212, 214, 216
BOv POF iscseenieceesoeees 307

BoreionAkron(North
Cape): sevessasavee ace 247-9
Boribane scceesicdccs’s 167
Boudaia ..sseeeee 150, 151
Boukephala...... se. 124
Boumasanol cesses 250
Brahmanabad......... 152
Brakhmanai Magoi. 167,
169

Brahmaputra, R. 192,
206, 209

Brakhmé...51, 167, 170-1
Brahmini, R......... 71

INDEX 347

PAGE PAGE

Bramagara .....0. 48, 50 | Chendh, R. ....c.seee 89
Bram, .oo.seceeeesees 244 | Chichalapoura ...... 147n
Brida divdccsvsvetessee 163-4 | Chilan ......ccsceecoseee 258
Budhiacisssssccves sedans LOL P Chimula: sisicscaws sense 43
Bungpasoi oseccccceee 20d | Chita crcseccscseceeeee 9 n6
Burra 25iilecsectciaes 198 | Chola or Chora ...65, 162
Byltai.35, 284-5, 294, 304 | Chutia Nagpur ...... 168
Byzanteion ...,.6040, 47 | Coe) orc. cccceseeseevee 58
Colcis Indorum ...... 57

Calcutta ....cccoseceese VO
Calingon, C. ...0c 62
Calinipaxa ......s00. 228
Canary Islands ......4 n4
Cantabra or Cantaba,

Rik cciapevsiustasesivens. OU

Capitalia, Mt. ........ 76
Cartana sro-secsecsvece 112

Chalacoory vec. 51
Champa ...9 n7, 203, 209
Chandan, R. ........ 98
Chandrabati 136
Chandrabhaga, R..89, 90
Chandur ......ceceee 155
Chantibon ............ 203
Chaturgréma (Chit-
tagong)
Chal: wssistartousnwace
Chédi
Cheduha, Is. .......0 236

Gee oeareseseeersrave

Colombo...... 00 .00006207-8
Coliacum, C. ......... 61
Comorim, C. ...55, 62, 78
COttara: secstesseseaons b5
Cuddalore ....c.0000. 65
Cyrus, Riiicsccsscscts: DLL

D

Dalai .......0.+660.263, 266
Dabasai( Damassai P).221,

223
Dagana..,...1.+248, 258
Dai bal sictvsweievisccas: “40

aida lip “sex ceaeieeevecs 124
Daitikhaivscicsivcs ses 130
Daix, R. .......-.286, 290
Dakhaura......ceeeee 217
Damassa or Dobassa,

NE, Saas 204-6, 208, 221
Damirike ...ccsceeseeeee 49

Dammana cee coer. Ole

348 INDEX,
PAGE PAGE
Damnai............299, 305 | Diamond Point......... 74

Damuda, R. ......... 100

Dangayas ..... re . 211
Dangors or Dagors.. 118,
305

Daradrae...83, 105-7, 805
DaranQal ...seccers.csee SLO
Dargamenes, R..268, 272,

310-12
Dargoidos, R.......+. 268
Darkama ...cccccereseee 308
Daroakand wcsevsceese 311

Dagamand ....ccccceee
Dasana or Doana ... 226
DaSAimdS ..csccveccer ces 71

Dashak........00+ eeu vad 315
Dauabar,.....sessecseceee 289
Daulatabad ........ ea lee
Daxatasacccers cise avee O00

Dedera-Oya, R. «1... 257 |

Dehli...122, 128, 130, 222

Dehra. jad: caseesvausesns a7
Démos, R_......275, 325
Deopali....cscseccereevee F795
Derbikkai .........268, 265
Dévagana...rceeeeree 150
Dévagadh ...esese tie LUG
Dewaliya ....cesereccee 149
Dhangars......cee...00 211
DAE soca anadetenanaads 154
Dharanikota ......... 187

Dharmodaya, R.......

Dharur or Darur

Dianouna, R. ......96, 98

Dilawar regieeie LOO
Dildaina:...civseskssacdsee 100
Dindugal cnccssiessesss 184
Dionysopolis ...... 112-13
Dionysos, C....04 248, 258
Diordouloi .......00..- 250
Dista.. sisswerscaarvicen’ O07

Dofinal vecoerrecsee ss 200-4
Doanas, R....202-3, 208-9
Doblana. wecissexestes 165
Dondra Head ......... 258
Dorias, R..202, 209, 234-5
Dosaréné .eseeeeeeee L713
Doesa 172
Désarén, R...70-1, 80, 104
Dounga........60024..09, 42
Draband or Dera-

Drakhamai ............ 307
Drangiané ...313-15, 329
Drastoka .......... SL1-12
Drepsa (or Rhepsa). 277,

282, 325

Drepsianoi ...... 276, 282
Drilophyllitai 160, 168,
171
Drésakhé (or Rhosakla)
299
Drybaktal wsessesereee 276

100 ! Dudhal irsaaeorgan 128
2177) Diigad wesecccrerereeene 42

INDEX, 349
PAGE PAGE
Dumura, R. .........234-5 | Huthymeédia ......... 122-4

Dwarakaé, ........6 see LOO
Dyardanes, K.......+6. 209

i

Ebousmouanassa ...
PLO WT snes eecenetey sans
Hiréne, Is. ..cseeceeves
Bkbatana....ccsseceeeee
Elangkon or Elang-

Elburg, Mts. ...sseee 262,
Eldanar ... ...ceecsecesees
BASINS’ ssiee..3seeees
FLU sapaiieventivasded, LOC

Embolima .........26 142
Emodos, Mt. ...2938- 4, 302,

326
a teeta hearer 135
Eoritai.. . 316
Tipitsida:s, . 151
Erarasa...... “124, 199, 298
Brod or Yirodu ...... 182
Erranoboas, R. .... 98
Errhenysis, R. ...... 97
Erymmoi patwadenaeueess 288
Eistobara vecccrccsseesee 269

Etymander, R.34, 309, 315

Buaspla, RB... 87
Euergetai.... . 315
Bukratidia ...... 269, 274

|
|

Bzata 4196

erece cde see cee

¥F

Paizabad .....esceccseee 229
Farzalt .....ccceceseosses LO
Ferro, Is. .....cccccesees 4n4
Foul Point ............ 258
Fu-nan..... isitensenco NO

G

Gagasmira ......124, 129
Gahalata ....ccsessseeee 118
Galaktophagoi Sky-
thai ...228-9, 295-6,
Gali ba: sccveiwsovascsns
Galiba, Mts.......
Galle, Poimt de
Gamaliba
Gammaké .....sece cee
Gandaki, R.102, 135, 205,
218
Gandaral .....cee 115, 116
Gandaritis ......00.. 87
Gandava, R. ...se.00 95
Gandhara . 115
GaNganol...ssecccccsees 210
Gangaridai ...172-4
Gangé Regia, 172-3, 215-6
Ganges, R. (of Cey-
LOL) stasssietatowbey COS

326
24:7
257
258

350 INDEX,
PAGE PAGE
Ganges, course of ... 79 | Godavari, C. ...... 62, 68

Ganges, mouths of.72, 73,
100-2
Ganges,tributaries of.97-8
Gangetic Gulf ...... 24, 63
Ganjém
Garamaiol .....ce00.. 17
Garamantes ......... 13 nll
Garinaioi (or Khara-
UNAIOI) ceesseree 299, 305
Garo Hills ievused COD
Garoia, R. ......e00. 88
Gaticara, C......ec000. 1l0n
Gaur or Gaura ...... 215
Gaur). Re-ssiasssciacvans 87
Gazakaor Gaudzaka. 311
Gedrosia. 34, 319-22, 329
Ghaghra or Ghogra,
Riess sealeteteteae ee; OO
Ghara, R.
Ghits, Eastern ...... 79
Ghats, Western ...78-81
Ghilghit .............. 118

GiTIVAJa .eccsecesceceee 129
Ghoda-bandar ...... 44
Ghorband, R.......... 112
Ghoregaon occ. 44
Ghoris or Gur ...... 111
Ghar, Mts. ............ 809
Girnar, Mt.........006 Oo”
Goa or Gova ......... 18]

Goaris, R.... 39, 41, 103
‘COMAD A: -niesdejncsivek 307

Godavari, R....41, 66, 234
Gomal, Ru. v.cccosscee 95
Gomati, R. .......0006. 86

Gonds ...cccccocseeseeee 160
Gonghris...... iiiaeeas 174
Gorakhpar .....0.0600. 99
GOrya ....0. sslaud vite 112-13
Goryaia ...... 88, 105, 110
GOLYS seccossscccvscsees 87
Goumara, Is. ......05- 251
Gouraios, R. ...... 110-114

Gouriané ....cccececeee 263
Goverdhan .........6 129
Great Cape ...... 202, 204
Great Gulf,.202, 204, 244
Green Sea...189, 191, 246
Grynaioi Skythai. 35, 284
Gudaluy ...ccccseceeees 65

Gujarat... cccceecsreee
GANT asaviewtenecevere
Gurkan (or Jorjan). 112,

261
OWaiies cds eseend tieaediee LOT
Gwadar ..... . B22

Gynaikon Limén.319,322,

329

H
Haidarabad ...... 144, 152
Hajipbr scccsaccossess. 218

Hala, Mts. .....ssceces 95

INDEX. 351

PAGE PAGE

Halsi vesceivece 181-| HIMADL sessicccessscesine 199
Hambangtote, C...... 258 | Honan-fu (Séra)...... 19n
Hang-chow ...... +000 10n | Horatae ......... 140, 149
Hangol seeseeee, ss. 182 | Horkand, sea of...... 259
Hanoi ...... vier MO | Hughlt, Ro iccccocsecs 73
Hardwar or Awartta. 130, | Hydaspés, R. ... 89, 125
212 | Hydraédtes, R. ... 90, 123

Hari-Rdad, R.......... 309 | Hypanis, R. ......... 90
Hashtnagar ......... 117 | Hyperborean, Mts.... 286
Hastakavapra ...... 150 | Hyphasis or Hypasis, R.
Hastinapura. 72, 122, 212 90, 91-2

Hastimatlla ............ 174
Hamp, «cisidsissionccne 154
Havila succosssncceccsoes 107
Hayakshétya ......... 166
Haz4ras, Mt. ......... 309

Hekatompylos ...17, 18n
Heliou limén ...248, 258
Hellespont, parallel of.14,
15, 18 n15

Helmund, R. .34, 309, 317
Herta, ...cccssescesceves 210
Heptanésia ......... 187-8
Herat (Areia) 19n, 111,
308-10, 315

Hesydrus, R. ......... 91
Hierapolis ......... ll, 17
Hindu-kush ......... 35
Hippokoura. 39, 44, 176,
é 178-9
Hippémolgoi ......... 295
Hippophagoi, Sky-

that... ....0.000000293, 296 | Indoi

Hyrkania.17, 260-2, 323-4

I
Tabadios, Is. .191, 239-41

Iasonion ......... 268, 324
Tastai stinedseees 28S
TghiOl- “sidisesvestasconss 276
Iastos, R. ...... 286, 290
EAGOU? wasicedisagiseccs 185
Taxartai ..csscose 288, 326
Taxartes, R. 275, 279-81,

286
Théringai .........221, 223
Darter asseviastinersces 185
.Imaés, Mt.19, 35, 289-90,

300
Indabara .........124, 128
ANU ais edcasVeesy soba LO
Indikomordana ...... 277

Ssasseeveeae “Ze

322 INDEX.
PAGE PAGE
Indoskythia ... 136, 140 | JalAlAbAd............... 114
Indoprathai ...... 221-2 | Jalalpar oes 125
Indrapratha ... 122, 128 | Jélandhara .......0.. 110
Indus, changes of JAMMA....cesscseecee see 126
course of ............ 84n | Jamnak ...... 60, 72, 99

Indus, mouths of, 33, 37,
96

Indus, origin of name
OL tuitistisadiiuaas Dlg Oe
Indus, sources of. 81, 83,
142
Indus, tributaries of. 81,
85, 86
Indus, valley of the 137
Tithdscicieseaccsssevesy O14
Tobares, R. ..cccsseeee 98
Togana ......... 248, 258
Iomusa 126
Trawadi, R. ........ 198-9
Islands of the Blest 4 n4,
10, 28
Issedén Skythiké.. 294-6
Issédones ...... 299, 327
Istargarh ............. 312
Ithagouros 118, 299, 305
Ivernia (Ireland) ... 14

Jagdalak ......ccscecees 1138
AT DH ve. iass aeesienbenss 129
Jajhpur csecoesescsseee 02

Java, Is. ..........6.239-41
Jayagadh......cccewe 57
Jelasor, R. .........+.- 10]
Jhelam, R. ......-..89, 109
Jibal Khushnami, Is. 238
JINN oicscccesvsseeess.6 nO
JOVAMPUL.....se00ee006 102
Jubunak, R. ......... 302
Juna-gadh wo... 37
JUANAY sieewesraie” Led

K
Kabul ............147n, 311
Kabul, R. .......0608. 84, 86
Kachbh, Gulf of ...... 36

Kadalundi ......00.. 50
Kadapai.e.ccceeceevereee 186
Kadranj, sea of ....., 200
Kailisa, Mt. ......... 83
Kainas, R. ....ccseeeee 98
Kaineitai, Is. ......... 48

Kaisand, svcsievscaccess 112
Kakobai ......ccececcee 22283
Kaékamukha ..... 172
Kakula..ccessscssceseens 236

INDEX 353

PAGE PAGE

Kalaganga, R. ...... 257 | Kanaris ..ssscsvceseeee 269
Kalah .......sessee0008. 200 | Kanathra, Is. ......... 250
Kalaikarias ......... 48, 51 | Kandaloi.............. 159
Kalaka-serai ........ 121 | Kandaroi......... 276, 281

Kalandradona, Is.... 250

Kalikat w.cccssseeee 49
Kalimir, C.....0..ece08 60-2
Kalinadt .........c00eee 215
Kalinadi, R. ......... 134
Kalinga ...sssccoseseee 233
Kalingai ........060 68, 81
Kaliour ..ccccsescceees 184.
Kallada ......06. vevee 153
Kallioena......cecseceee 40, 57
Reale aisis tent cncsateeare 185
Kalligeris ......... 176, 179
Kalligikon, C. ...59, 60-2
FRADE” sande tues sieseanes 21
Kalyan ............ 160, 179
Kalyana.....eseseseses 43, 57

Kamah, R. ............. 86
Kamane,....ecccsceee
Kamara wccccosssccssee 67

Kambadyat ...ccccssace 42
Kambérikhon, R. ... 72
Kamboja, C. cesses 204
Kambukgam, R....... 257

Kambyson, R...71, 72, 73
Kamigara .......0+. 151-2
Kamilla: sivccciccsne,e 282

Kampana, R. ......... 111
Kanagara...131, 134, 227
Kanarak .....008. seeese 20

Kandipatna........0.. 185
Kanatti ...sccccorsssee 53

Kangarayen, R........ 257
RONGTA: icasisscuweecee 110
Kanhagiri ......0 ove. 179
Kannagara ......... 69, 70
Kanmnetyi ..cceececseeeee 54

Kanogiza...134, 224, 227-8
Kanodipsa .........-.- 287-8

Kanouj ......5 134, 227-8
Kant vis iestsesdevseecoese 134
Kantula ......sccsccoes 160
Kanthi, Gulf of 33,36,136,

187
Kanyakubja ... 134, 227
Kapiséné ......... 106, 113
Kapoutana, ............ 307
Karacht sésiecesses 146, 321
KAragam ..,..sccesscees 182
Karallis .....cscescsees 21

Karatai... oes sessed, 284-5
Kareoi .........57, 64, 183

KKATIGG: vise isesnitewes 185-6
Karikal ......00. cesses 64
Karikardama ......0.. 172
Rarkallasinncsasat 146

Karkos, Is. .........+5. 250
Karmaphuli, R. .194, 235
APMATA: cas eecaesieses 184

354 INDEX

| PAGE PAGE
Karnagarh ...seesssee 172 | Kattigara... 9n7, 11 n7,
Karnasoénagarh ...... 172 25, 245
Karnul .......ceeee eee 163 | Kaukasos, Mts...277, 311
Karoura (Kabul), 34, 180> | Kausdmbi .....cccceee ees 72

182, 311-12

Kartasina ...ssccssese 171-2
Kartinaga ...ccsesees 171-2
Karur siecvscsercventses 50, 65
Kaisa pS ieccsdnsteevncses 261
Kaseirotal ...cesseoeee 306
Kashgar .secscsscsesee O04
KBST ssicevaseonutessvere 928

Kasia ...
Kasia, Mts. ...293-4, 298

Keaské ...cscsescecescess 308
Kaégmir...... 89, 108-9, 302
Kaspapyros ...ssceeeers 116

Kaspatyros ............ 108
Kaspeira
Kaspeiria 105-8, 124-6,

301
Kaspian Gates, 17,18, 20n
Kassida ......s00eseeee 220-8

Kaptra seesssececvesvene’ 171
Katabéda, R...... 191, 194
Ratak: ccisssctvesensss. 70-1
Kathaians.........123, 157
Kathidvad ....sccccseee 157
Rathisicssescstscontex'e 157-8
Katikardama ...... 69-70
KAtISA ccvoidenaseiied Ob
Kattaks 157
Kattaour .cescsscceseeee 157

Kauéiki, R. ......102, 205
Kavéri, R. ......50, 65, 79
Kaveripattam ......... 65
Kayal ...csccccscovcevses 58
Kayana or Kohana,R. 98

Kelydna ......0 212, 214
Kennery, Is. .....+00. 4A
Kerangé c.scsccseees 185
Keesarwar ..cccessovee eg LOL
Kesho ..ssscccccseeeee 917
Ketaion, C......... 248, 258
Khaheris ..cccosceses 63, 65
Khabéros, R.......0. 63, 65
Khaibar Pass......... 113
Khaliné, Is....... 236, 238
Khalkitis ......+000- 222
Khan-ft .ocsccccecvesee 10n
Kharakharta ......... 269
Kharaunaioi Skythai
293
Khariphron ......0.. 33, 36
Kaisa) daseseses caseeess 303
Khatai Skythai...... 293
Khatriaiol...... 141, 156-7
Khatris cscccesescvense 159
Khatriskhe ........000 307
Khaurana ........- 394, 326

Khaurina.....scccsceess OOF
Khéda ......s0s00000e008 181

INDEX. 355

PAGE PAGE

Khetars ......00.... 157 | Kéa, R. 81, 86, 87, 93, 95,
Khersonese, The Golden 312
24, 27, 190, 197-8, 208, | Koangka ....0 132, 135
226 | Kodand, Is.....secceeee 320

Khersonesus of the Koddura. .....+...-..66, 68
Pirates .........45, 47-8 | Kodrana ..... 136, 141

Khitai or Kathay. 9n 6
Khiva ............282, 290
Khoana ...ecsecsseveee 269
Khoaspa seeeeeee 316, 329
Khoaspes, R. 86, ue 128
Khiéés, R. ......000 87

Khojend ........00..... 282
Kholbésina ............ 276
Khomara eee 209
Khomar0l seosesseceee 268
Khonnamagara 124, 126
Khorasmioi ...... 276, 282 |
Khréndoi os. seceeeees 261

KDryse..scssccerececeere 69

Khrysoanas, R. 198-9,
208-9
Khwarasm... 279 n, 282

Khyendwen, R....... 285
Kianchi ........060 9n?7
Kimara wevcccesrereees 200
Kindia ............131, 1384
Kipin or Kophen ... 318
Kirdta ............192, 282
Kirrhadai......0.. 276, 282
Kirrhadia ......... 219-221
Kizibdarya, R. ...... 290

Kleisobara .....61 .0. 9

Kognabanda, ..,...++
Kognandoua ...124, 126

Kohik, R. ...35, 277, 291
Koiamba ......scecseees 319
Koimbatur Gap...... 78
KOKA aiesncdscskinsueees 70
KOK aU coed Sevan eds 179
Kokelay .. seoree 258
Kokionasara. 296, 935. 6,

245

Kokkonagai......... 171-2
Kola or Kula-taik 198 n

Kolaka ....cseee cee 142, 146
Kolhapur ....sceeree 177
KOli ... see seeeve eee 498, 200
Kolindoia seosssseesce 183
Kohls: siveisssseewense GL
Kolkhiec Gulf ......... 57
Kolkhoi............57-8, 78
Kolmandla ..........6 47
Komari, C. .........29, 53
Komaroi .....00.. 35, 284
Komédai. 18, 35, 104, 275,

278, 284
KGL 606 sikeereesacius 268
Kondopalle .....+06 - 68
Kondéta sbenabernesiese ele

306

INDEX
PAGE PAGE
Konkan ...... ean wees 45 | Kouba .csccececsecsceces 180
Ont: 2eccicsassreeesds 130 | Koudoutai ........06.. 22.2
Kontakossyla chal 66, 68 Koumaraka, R....... 74
Ko-panto ....ccsseen 12n9 | Kouni .........00 saan 320
Kophén or Kophés, R. 86, | Kourellour ......... 180-1
105 | Kouriandra 269
Korangkaloi ......... 217 | Kouraporeina........ 135
Korankara, o..+06 sevece 217 Kouroula cesses 22, 63, 6¢
KOrvax0l ccvececsccceses 200 Kranganfr sieeet ss 50-53
Korcour ....cccereeeee 180 | Krishna, Ru... 41, 63, 66
Koreoura seeceee 49 | Krishnapatam oi. 67
Korindiour ...scccscece 183 Krokala, WS: 4h kaise 146
Koringa ....scccsseeses 68 | Kubhd, R. cc... 86
Korkobara ......248, 258 | Kuchiavelli 258
Korénos, Mt. ...... 260-2 | Kuda ssccorcssssssseeee 45

Kortatha.....seccceeeee 202
Koroungkala_ ...185, 187
Kory, Is. ....s0seseeccee 187
Kory, C. 22,26 n, 59, 60,

189, 247
Korygaza os. 212, 216-7
KOR. ccacasces cssees ees 158
Kosala ..ss2000002.99, 185
Kosamba ...cceese ee 00, 72

Kotak ccccescovcceses
Kotaur cscccovessovene OO
Kottiara ......06 50, 54, 55
Kottiaris, R. ......06.
Kottis
Kottobara
Kottobara (in Gedro-

Slay). ssbveddeeaiseenen OoO
Kottonariké ......00, 188

Kudramali, Pt. ...... 258

Kulburga seccscseeees 177
KUNG. savecdisaaass 110
Kaluta:. « ssscsscecteeens 110
Kunar or Kamah, R. 86,

106
Kuram, Ri. ..cccccscse 441
Kurumbars. .eeessees 162

Kuna) sistsasisisaieoaes, 130
Kushans .....sscceceree 138
Kusinagara 135
Kylindriné ...... 105, 109
Kyreskhata 276, 283, 325

L

Labokla ... 122, 124, 126
Lahore ...... 122, 123, 126

INDEX. 357

PAGE PAGE

Lambatai evens. 104,106 | Madur& or Mathura 60,
Liameta ~cisississ senses 167 122, 126, 129, 184

Lamghan 106, 141, 213
Landai, R. ......-..87, 110

Lanka (Ceylon) ...... 251
LArdéda ..cccccsseceeee 153
Lariagara .ssssesecees 225
Lariké ......88, 152-3, 157
Lasyppa@ cscccccesseees . 226
Launi or Lavani, R. 37,

94

Lepchhas....sescesseeee 224
Léstai or Robbers’

Country <0... Pree 202
Leuké, Is..........57, 187-8
Liganeira .,...e00. 124, 126
LigOr secseoceescveseees 203

Limyriké............49, 180

Logarh.,....ccsscssvere O13
Loh&war ...ssccerecee 127
Lokharna, ......++ 311, 318
Lohkot......ceceeeseeens 122
Lonibaré eeseceoeres 33, 37
Lo-yang sssscccccceroee 190
M
Maagrammon ...250, 259
Macco-Calingae...... 293
Machin .....ccceeeeeee 9n7
Madagascar, Is. ...... 256
Madang-arh ......6+ A?
Madhy-a-désa .......+. 77

Madras cee eevece sie ao; 157

Madura, Is.......sceces 241
Magaris 171
Maghada. .........119, 169
Magnetic Rocks ...242-4
Magona, R.......000008 97

Magour ...ecccccceeces 184
Mahaban, Mt.......00. 143
Mahanadi, R. 71, 161, 169,

333
Mahananda ......soeeee 215

Maharashtra ........ 389
Mahaweliganga, R...
Mahendra, Mt....... 69, 76
Malt vice spasscesevandee
Maiandros, Mt. 204-5, 208
Mais, Rivcisscisscdseciee, 104
Maisolia ...66, 67, 68, 185
Maisolos, R......... 66, 103
Maisoka or Mausoka. 261
Malaia, Mt. ...... 249, 256
Malaita
Malaka, straits of ... 200
Malamantus, R....... 88
Malanga ......... 67, 185-6
Malaya, Mt. .........75, 78

MSIE: Sceseniesevsesanee 215
Maleiba ws... wadvece 164
Maleo; © iscscisscccveass 38
Maleou Kolon, C. ...198-9
Maliane ..c.cccccseeeee 317
Malipalla ....2...0+0175-6

358 INDEX.
PAGE PAGE
MAlKhEd oo. sce cceeseeee 179 | Margara seevsssseseeeee 130

Niall sivsswccscncteeeseays 169
Maltoun ....cccceee eee 165
Manada, R. ...69, 71, 103
Mandr Gulf... 57
Manarat, R.....++.0ee0 67
Manarppa or Manali-
arpha, ....sse0ee++e66, 67
Mandagara...... 45, 47, 57
Mandalai_ ...132-3, 167-8
Mandara, Mt. ...110, 205
Manekir ......cccseeee, 156
Mangalin ...46, 48, 50, 54
Mangaruth ..s+eesseeee 46
Mangrol
Maniaina or Mania-
GAIA, dav cccsereeseseeee 22D

Manikhai ......scseceeee 132
Maniolai, Is. 237, 239,

24.2.4,
Manneyeh ....sccseeee 132
Mantittour sesree 183
Mantote ...ccccovsee 258-9

Mapoura wseceveceeeree 70
Marakanda (Samar-

kand) .secseees 269, 274
Marakodra ...--sseeeee 269
Mardos or Mardou-

lamné ...s.00e 248, 258
Mardyén0oi ......seeeee 276
Mareoura or Mat-

thoura sree. 226, 285

Margana eesseees 247, 258

Marghinan ............ 283

Margiané ...... 262-7, 324
Margos, R. ......... 263-4
Marhara ..sccosecceeese 130
Maroukaiseescsasssenens 276
Maroundai ......... 212-4
Martaban 10n
Martaban, gulf of ... 197
Marudvridha, R....... 85
Marykaiol ...s.eeeeee 268
Masdoranoi or Mazo-’
TANOL <Arislaceteass 306

Massagetai 35, 263, 265-6,

284
Massaiol ..eserceccce see 287
Mastanour ...«.... 180-1
Masulipattam ...... 68
Matlale’: .isoxsestaskcses 74
Mausarnaidl coecceces 320

Maxéra, R....... 260, 262
Maxérai ..ccosecsveere 261
Mega, R. ......seeee 72, 74
Mehatnu, R. ......... 68
Mekong, R....... 208, 209

| Melangé ....secseees 65, 67

Melizeigara ..... 57, 187
Melkynda. ...scsceeees 52-4
Menapia... seve 269, 325
Mendéla ...scccorsseree 183
Menouthias, Is. ...... 189
Meru, Mt. ........5.. 110
Methora wccccccsrroree 98

INDEX, 359

PAGE PAGE

Milizegyris ............ 57 | NagadibaorNagadina249,
Minagara ......70, 72, 159 258-9
Minnagar ...... 139, 152 | Nagapatam ........00 64
Mind .cccsccceseseee vee 266 | Nagara ...sccceceseees 112-13
Miraj ...sccsccsseeeeeee 180 | Nagarouris .........0 . 175
Mirzapfr ........- 78, 184 | Nageiroi .........0.. 250
Mithankot ...94, 143, 144 | Nagor ......ceeese essere 64
Modogoulla ...... 176, 179 | Nakadouba............ 250

Modoura. 124, 128, 183-4
Modouttou ... 249, 258-9

Mohana, R. ......eseeee 97
Mologénoi ....scseeees 288
Monakhé, Is.......... 250
Monedes ...+ss0e rian 212
Monoglosson ...... 33, 37

Méphis, R. ......88, 103-4

Morounda ........, 180-82
Mousarna ...... 320, 322
Mousopallé ............ 180
Mouziris . 48, 51, 54, 242
MGGeal:. .tiaessiee 179
Mundas ....cecseseceee 212
Muranda 106

Murgh-ab or Meru-
PUY Ricsvesiasesviers
Muyiri-kodu ........ 51

N
Naagramma ......... 151
Nabaris:: <cvsiccsestevas 307
Nadubandagar ...... 135

Naf or Tekendaf, R....
Nagadiba, Is. ......... 25]

Namados or -és, R. 38, 102
Namostai_............ 289
Nanagouna, R. 45, 48,
103, 159
Nangalogai ......221, 223
Nanghenhar (Naga-
ra-hara) ......... 113-14
Nanigaina
Wagers oe scccsseee

Naoshera. ....seseecseeee LOL
Nara, BR. sesssesrcees 94, 145
Narmada or Narbada, R.

99
Naroulla ............ 180-1
Nartenh .....csecseeees 230
Nasika ......0.6..6152, 156
Natl: <sceecessssenexes 117
Naulibis ......... 311, 328
NaAUSArl... ccccecccevcvees 39
Nausaripa .....sseedd, 39

Navi-bandar .......... 37

Negombo .s.cccreovee 258
Negrais, C. .....+06 63, 197
Nelisuram ...sceeseere o4

Nelkynda sesccesesees 52, 60

360 INDEX

PAGE PAGE
Neudrog, Russe cecceees 90 | Ophir .......s000008. 40, 140
Nigranigramma ...... 156 | Opiané ........ »..20n, 112
Ni KANE wcsissssesesion: 89, 125 | Opotoura.......ccoveee 168
Nikamdicisesseescsdass 63, 64 | Orbadar-i or -ou...... 149
Nikobar, Is......c000 00s 239 | Orchomanes, R....... 324
Nilfbeisssssseaseisvcasene 117 | Oreisitoi .....cccecesses 269
Nilgiri, Mts. .......0 79 | Oreital ...ccecccce soveee 159
Niphanda,..... secre 311 | Oreophanta ...........167
Nirafijana, R.......... 97 | Orgalic Gulf ...... 59, 60
Nisaia or Nigaia. 263, 267, | Orgasoi......sscesseee 288
324 ) Ornedn, C......008 248, 258
Nisaioi ....0.. »e++e806, 309 | Ornedn, Is. ..eccceceeee 250
Nisibis .....000006-308, 028 | Orosana ccccccccccecce 300
NissSa — .seeeesssoeeeeees267 | Oroudian, Mts...78, 80, 81
Nitra ..scccesseceees 45,48 | Orthiana .......00...00 807
Norosson, Mts. ...286,291 | Orthoura......... 64, 184-5
Nostana «.secssecerees 314 | Ortikane ...cceceevecees 308
Noubartha ......248, 258 Ortospana (Kabfl) 20n,
NY Zdosora sesssesecees 159 34, 311-2, 328
INYS8. sseisn sen vsesseses 105 | OFZ iis esesessicnsss 130, 131
Osanpar ...scccccscceee 151
O Oskanaa ....eeeeeee 144, 320
OStHE aigesscessacteers LOS
Obareis sss sedineaes 306 | Ostobalasara ......++. 124
Oddka,.....sesceeeee 248, 258 | Ottorokorrhas, Mts. 298-
Odombarae ...cccseeeee 149 300, 305, 326
Oidanes, R. ...sseseeeee 209 | Ouangalia, Is.......... 250

Oikhardés, R. 293-4, 298- | Ouindion (Vindhya),
9, 326 Mist resseteseatecde. 00
Okhos, R...267, 272-3, 324 | Oulispada ............ 250
Olokhoira ....seseeeee 180-1 | Ourathénai ...... 225, 230
Oménogara .....000. 175-6 | Ouxenton, Mts. 76, 78, 80,
OMI ZA. 655 sav dene. vax ves 320 100

INDEX. 361
PAGE PAGE
Oxela, Co cc. 249, 258 | Panasa ceeceeeeerseees 150-1

Oxeian Lake 275, 281, 325
Oxeian, Mts. ... 274, 276
OXeIANA ..csccresvensee 2E0
OxeiaNnol ......ceecese0e 276
Oxus, R. 88, 260, 267-8,

276-9, 286

Oxydrangkai ......... 276 |
Ozéné...... 38, 152, 154-5
Ozoabis . 158

Ozoana .......66...168, 171
Ozola (or Axola)...... 316

P

Pagrasa s.eccressseere 202
Pakidaré .......0000008. 38
Palaiogonoi .........202-3
Palaipatmai ......... 40
Palai-Simoundou ...252-3
Palk’s Passage ...... 60
Palanda ....cssosseseee 226
Palandos, R. ...198, 208-9
Balt. cccusesesans cavseeices 45
Paliana...coccssvsrrcccee 299
Palibothra (Patna) 19, 30,
99, 1382, 167, 168-9
Palibothri .......00. 98
Paloura 23, 63, 67-70, 180
Pamir Plateau ...... 278n
46 «G

Panassa .........164, 166-7
Patfichala ......... 131, 133
Pandasa.....s.e0002 220, 209
Pandionoi .........51, 183

Pandion’s Land .....- 59
Paridowol sccciavsiveses 121
Pandu's Fort ......... 133

Paniardoi ea Bg
Panjab, Rivers of ... 88
Panjab rivers, conflu-
ence Of .......060-91, 94
Pai KOLa cpivcetsenssee Od

Panjpar ssoccseoseesee 143
Pafijshin ...scessecseese 312
Panjshir, Ru... .ceseceee 112
Pantipolis .........--. 180
Parabali ....e.se0008 151
Paradéné ......sceccsees 320
Parakanak6...... +0000 308
Paralia ...54, 63, 64, 184
Parashni, R. ....ceee 85
PSarANtOL sisseress 306, 312
Pardabathra ......... 142

Pardwa or Priya-
GOVE siaiietevaessivass 100
Paripitra or Pariya-
PPALauarianenrkeersaass 76
Parnasd, R. .....e.0066 166
Parnoi ..-..0.00+0-260, 266
Paropanisadai,34, 310-13,
328
Paropanisos, Mt. ... 268

362 INDEX.

PAGE PAGE
Parisara .ccsecesenseese 225 | Peshawarun .,....... 318
Parisiéné ...... recor 820 | Patirgala ......... 176, 179

Parsia, ...c0cc0s00ee8.-0LL-13
Parsiana Stiievcsoliel2
Parsidai or Parsirai. 320

Parsis: vcidee icons? 320, 322
Parsyétai...... 311-12, 316
Parthalis:ssisssge evade 174
Parwiin ....seee 112, 312
Pasag6é .....00 weve 180-1
Pasianoi ..... poe ndaees 272
Pasikana ....cee. 124, 126
Pasipida ...... 142-3, 151

Paskai ..ccsccsecsesseree 200
Passala .rcscacceserese LO0-1
Passalai .......6.+..217-18
Patala
Pataléné .........136, 139
Pati Bay ......249, 256-8
Patistama ..ccccccsees 157
Patni, ..ecccveseeed2, 168
Pauravasd scesesssssee 164
Pavangatrh ............ 154

PEGU 12. sevveeseveee 69, 235
Penn-ar, R. .........65, 67
Pentagramma, ...... 142-3
Pentapolis ............ 191
Peperiné, Is. ......... 187-8
Perimoula ...... 198, 201
Perimoulic, Gulf 198, 200
Peringkarei ...... 51, 183
Persakra . 131
Peshawar .........86, 117 |

Peukelaotis.. 20 n, 115-17
Pharazana ............ d14
Pharetra or Pharytra 185
Phasis, R. .........249, 257
Phaunoi, 278 n, 282, 305

Philékos, Is. ......... 250
Phoklis: scsssissieuseas OL
Pharana secscecessosese 307
Phra. seavscncesee nae 309, 315
PHYPBtOU ses saseneceasse 269
Phrourion ......+0+-6- 185-6
Phyllitai ......... 159, 160
Pialai (or Piaddai)... 299
Pirate Coast ......0. 45

Pishon or Pisanu, R. 107

Pisk@r. “.cvsasuss essence 142
Pithonabasta ...... 202-3
Pitt, Ris: sesssseveveress. 86
Pityndra .....0.0. 68, 185
Plaita’ dicdisicdessssocee LOS
Podigei or Pothigei,

IMGs Sdartessseccaventes 78
Podoperoura ...... 49, 52
Podouké ...... 65, 66, 250

Poinai Thesn, Mts..... 75
Poleour vrecccseseveeee 185
Poloura eecsessrreeed 2, 75
Polytimetos, R. 281, 286,

290-1
Port of Alexander... 321
PArvar0i weesseseeeee 163-5

INDEX
PAGE PAGE
Posinara wesc, 225 | Purt cccccecscsssssccceseee 70
Poudopatana ......... 52 | Pushkaravati ......... 115
Poulindai Agriophagoi Purrhon Oros (Red
156-7, 160 Hill) ....ccecceveees 53, 64
Poulipoula ......... 38, 39
Pounnata .......0000. 180
Pramaras 164 Q
Prapidtai .. 158
Prarjuna, Is. ........008 83:| Qandahar ...34, 116, 317
Prasiaké, Is. ......... 83 | Quilon dwieceees 58-4
Prasiaké ............ 131-3
PPASI ce leceseaties 188, 253
Prasddes Bay...248, 257-8 m=
Prasum, C... 25, 191, 246
Pratishthana ......79, 177 | Ramagiri (Rémtek).. 159
Prayag (Allahabad). 175 | Bamama ores oo
Priapis Haven ...248, 258 | Ramancoru, C......--. e
Prinas or Pinnas, R. 98 Rameévaram, Is...60, 189
Proklais ...... 116-17, 155 | Ramu... sree ag eas
Prokouri ...scc.000e0 vo 2G | Ranga .serrreee 1978
Prophthasia 20n, 313, Rapti, R.....c.s0. neon 98-9
315, 329 | Rasang.....eerseeeserees 7

Pseudostomon, R. 49, 52,
78, 103, 180

Pseudostomon (a
Ganges mouth) 73-4

Puduchcheri (Pon-
dicherry) ......2...6. 67

Pualicat visescisncivwenses 67

Pulo Condor, Is. 204, 241
Punyaor Panptn, R. 98
Purah,. Re sss cccscs 314, 32)
Pur-bandar .....608.. 37

Reali ccs asta cs acces ntanees
Ravi, R. ......90, 109, 123

Rha, R. ...285-6, 290, 296
Rhabana ...sce.ssereeee 244
Rhabannai_ ......299, 305
Rhadamarkotta 225,228-9
Rhagirana .......0+.. 319
Rhambakia ..........5» 159

Rhamnai...158-29, 320, 322
210

364 INDEX.

PAGE PAGE
Rhaugara...eneeseeeee B07 | Sador, Re ssecceesseceee 196
Rh6a ....cesceseeeesereeee 263 | Sagala 122,131, 134-5, 169

Rhibioid ..sceeeeeeceses 289

Rhingibéri...... 925, 234-5
Rhizana .....s..ee. 316, 319

Rhoboskoi 287
Rhodes, parallel of 4.n8,
6, 11, 17, 18 n15
Rhogandanoi ...250, 259
Rhoploutai ........6. 316
Rhouadis, R. ......... 90
Rhouda | ......... le
Riksha (Bear) Mis... 46
Rikshavat ............ 8
Rin or Irina ...... 94, 157
Rizala Haven .. 249, 258
Robber Country ... 222
Rupandrayana, R. 101,
17
Rymmik, Mts. 286-8, 291
Rhymimos, R. 286, 290,
326

s

Sabadeibai, Is....2386, 239
Sabadiol .....-cecceeeee 269
Sabana ...136, 143, 198-9
Sabalaessa, R. ... ...38, 86

Sabara . 196
Sabarat ~ 72-8
Sahbouras ..cccccccess 63, 65
Sal hn eiesecen: 2-4, 105-6

Sagaraukal 289, 326
Saghéla or Sakula ... 135
Sagapa (Ghira) R: 33, 36

| Sagéda ......ccec000s 164-6
| Sagdda or Sadéga 225,
228-9

Sahya, Mt. ..-...ecsseeeee £6
Sahyddiri, Mt....... 79, 80
Sailédé, R.........66.. 110
Saimur or Jaimur... 42
Sainos, R....... Sagas 244-5
Saitianoi ......e0000. 287
Sajintra ...... . 154
Paeail aaxetawa 283 5, wd
Sakaraulol .....6...6 ae he
Saké or Salé ......... 261
Sakeba: tiviiene LOG, 228
Salagissa ........124, 126
Salakénoi 171-3
Salang, Is. w.ceeeeee 208
NAAT AL vieeevesaeev. 208
Salatha ie 2eD
Saliké ee 247, 202
Satour . sessewatves OO
Salsas R Avnate stents 209
Samarkand 12 n9, 35, 271,
274

Samaradé ..csseee WD
Sambalaka.151, 333, 167,
169

LASALLE. svossioverecens 146

INDEX. 360

PAGE PAGE

Samnttai ....e....0 288 | Satlaz, R. we. 91, 99
Sandabaga, R. ...6. 89 | Satpura, Mts.......... v7
Sandabal, R. ...... 83, 89 | Satyrs, cape of the... 245
Sandokandai ........ 249 | Satung or Thatung. 199

Sandowe (Sandwipa).194,

197
Sanf or Chanf ...... 203
Sangala ......0 122, 157
Sangamarta cscs 162
SaNJan .vcsesesceraee 39
DANK Ris sev svacacssavns a
Sannaba .......0000. 13]
SAPALA csecssecsessees Ooy BO
Sapolos . 210
Sarabakic Gulf... 196-7
Sarabos, R. .. 29, 210
Saramanne...... 260, 323
Saranges, R. ......... 90

Sarasvati, R. 85, 89, 99,

101
Sarata 245
Sarayu or Sarju, R....

Sarbana or Sardana. 348

Sardonyx, Mts. ...... 75-6 |
Saviga sseseevoscesereses 308

Sariphi, Mts. 262, 264, 309

Sarisabis seccoocsesee LV 0-6

Sarmagana . . 307
Sarmatia ..e.ecee. 283, 296
MALSliimscnimcewepeeey kok
unis Reser . 86
Sasones meen Zoo
Satadru, Risen 92

99 |

Satyrs’ Is.........
Saurabatis ..ccocssee
SaAZANtiON v.ceveseces
SEWN ceececssccecess V4
Seistin, lake of 309
Sélammpura ...... 224, 227

.239, 241
135

« 152

S6lOUM ....cceeceeceesene 183
Semanthinos, Mt. 204,
206-7

Sémanthinoi ......... 245
SemNe ...... cceceeees 49, 52
Sennoi ....-. 249
seont satvvevncrae 04
Séya 9, 13, 14, 19 n16, 300,
327

Serendib (Ceylon)... 252
Séres .....e.0. 9 nb, 326-8
Serikeé oeoe 297-308
Seripala ......0.. “103, 152

Séros, R..........202, 208-9

Sésatal...cceccssserese BIB
Sibae cscccscorevvsvseee QO
Sibrion tee AOS
Sidhpar . 149
Sidd-jayagatl wc... 188
Sigahla ...ccceeeee 167, 169
DIVEFUG iecccsssereee 57

Simylla (Chaul) 29, 32,
42-3, 67, 204

366 INDEX,
PAGE PAGE
Sina (or Séna) ...... 265°} SOGPA csisccucvadesexts 159

Sinai or Thinai ...5, 9 n6
Sinai, Gulf of the ... 245
Sinai, land of the...244-7
Sinaka......seceees eas ZO
BINA: :cicieedecves 202, 204.
Sindai, Is....236, 238, 24]
Sindhu ... seceeseeeeee 82, 85
Sindhu, R. .........-. 161
Sindokanda ...... 248, 258
Sindomana, ......ee.0 144
Singapur, Straits of.. 242
Sign-an-fu ....e 10n
Sinthon (Piti), R....... 30
Sipiberis (or Sitté-

DENIS)” asaesiveeciisee 225
Sippara .issresersasiese 70-2
SipparE oees.sccessveas 807

Sirakéné ....ccccceesses 261

Sirimalaga ...... 176, 179
Sirtpalla ....ceceeeveeee 154
ShAhAErI ..........00 00 12]
Shahjahanpfr ...... 134
Shakohpur 127
Skordal c.ssseseveeee 268
Skardo, R. 00 294

Skorpiophoros khare 307
Skopoloura ......606.. 185
Skythia beyond Imaos
292-7
Skythia within Imaés

285-92, 825 |

Sobanos, R.... 202-3, 209
Socunda .....ccseseeess G2
Sogdiana 35, 274-83, 325
Sogdian, Mts. 38, 275-6,

278
DOCH + csaasscaswoenssens 277
Sokanda, R. ......0 260
SOLANA -sicivecsesseeweves 300
Solen cescccsesece naeias 323
Sdélén, R....57, 59, 78, 103
Solomatis, R. ......98, 99
Sdn, Ry. ..cccecseeee 77, 98-9
Sonaparanta...... 198, 221
Sonargaon ...ccccceee 175

“SSpatma oo. .cccccceesee 67

SOphara .........06. AL

SOra we... 64, 65, 162, 185
SOPrDA: duscntexes tes des 261
Sérétai ....ceeeee. 64, 184
Soteira ...... 308, 310, 328
Souanagoura ...225, 228
Souasténe .....ceeeee 105-6

Soubouttou....coccceee

Soudasanna ......... 156
Souob6nol .....csceeee 287
SOUPAra..scoccessevere 39, 40
Sourasénol ........00 98
SOULOMAaANA werecceseees 269
Sousikana ...142, 144-46
Sousouara, Is. ...... 251
Southern Cape ...... 244

Soana, R. ......248-9, 257 | Soxestra or Sokstra. 320

INDEX. 367

PAGE PAGE

Spatana Haven 249, 258 | Tagara...... wee 79, 175-8
Stagabaza ........... 163 | Tagaung ....... £231, 235
SthanéSvara ........ 128 | Tatkkula ....cccccceoes . 198
Stone Tower 12-19, 30, | Taimour ........0..00. 183
284, 325 | Takéla ...sseceeceeeee 198-9

Storna ..........00..-210-12 | Takola, C. . 197
SUATT asisavese eosaeisas 173 | Takoyraioi.. 217
Subanrékha, R........ 74 | Takshasila ‘(Taxila). 115,
Suktimat, Mt.......... 75 118
Sumatra, Is. 190, 238-10, | Talara .....cccccseseeeee 183
256 | Talakéry or Aakdté... 249
Sfiat...scscceccccseesccee 149 | Talarga seoreress 212, 214-6
Supara,(see Soupara). Talks, Weeveciecveissenes SOL
Sdrparaka ......c00 ee 72 | Taluctad...ccocccccsssevee 170

Sushéma, R. ......... 85
Suvarna-rékhé, R.... 71

Suzantion ......... 154
Svett, Ru..sveereevee 86-8
Sydrol... secceesseeee cee 316
Sydros ..eccecsseeseseee 151
Syéba, Mts.... 287-8, 292
Syebol .ccsecceeseaceeees 287
Syrastra 33-37, 140, 158
Syrastréné ......6+ 33, 136
Syrieni......sesereevee 185
Syrnisika......sccsseers 157
SYZYGCS ssceceeene scene 209
Tt
Tabasoi......158, 175, 178
Tabiénol os. secseesesers 288

Tamala?. -scsvssssseteave Od
Tamalités ...i.......167-8
TamasisS seececssereeee 135
TambyZ0l...scccceeeee 268

TAMECLral ceccccccscccece 193
Tamluk .....00. .74, 168-9
Tamralipta .........73, 169

Tamraparni, R. 57,59, 78,

252
Tama crore iaseeetaraes . 42
Tanais or Don, R.... 281
Tangola or Taga ...183-4
Tangalle ......sesceeese 258
Tangan0l....seceeoee 210-11
Tanjore .....0.....64, 183
Tank or Tonk ......210-11
TAanOe cisvieeesdevesases 50

Tapoura, Mts.., 287-9, 291
Tapoureiod seesesreovee 208

368 INDEX.
PAGE PAGE
Tapouroi .........268, 267 | Tholoubana ........ 163-4
Taprobane, Is. 61, 247, Thoulé (Shetland Is.). 5,
259 297
Tapti, R....... 48, 158, 160 | Throana ...eccsecesecee 202
Tarbakana ...... + S11 | Throanoi .........299, 305
Taraklol ....ccseeees 250 | Taitoura (Chittore). 152,

Tatakéné ....0.0.010-14
Ma thilbay dss avviedserne LO0¢
{LP Alldiccansessiecveess eels 307
Tawkiana vevesessesee 307
Tavoy, BR. ....cccseeee 209
Taxila.. 20n, 115, 118-121

Tashkand ......eee0 12 n9
Tashkurgan .........12 n9
Tas OplOM sssatsenvedees ¢- 142

Tejin, R......sseeere 262

Tektosakes sscoscsesee 287
Témala, BR. ...escsseeee 196
Témala, C. ...ccceeeeee 196
Tennagora oe... 184
DEWAL ivncoutevskoateess 166
THAGOLA cevesesevesvess 202
Thagouron, Mt....... 298
"THAN cod aesnaadtendesest: 140
Thanesar — cessssesseee 128
Tharawati .......0. 206
Pharrlias: ssesticd 226, 236
Thelkheir.........¢ ‘fae! Oo
Theophila ....sscceses 149
EDINA: acaesvaeeaetoweses 220

Thinai (Si-gnan-fu or
Loyang) ... 9n6, 245-6
Thogara sisssocreversee 300

156

THAUSA seseecccesersvceee L42

Tiladal ......sceseeeee 217-8
TilogrammMon ...+..66 72
Timoula ......caeeee 29, 42
Tinneveli ...ccccoeeerd?, OD
Tiripangolida. ......+. 175
Tisapatinga — .erervese 157

Tistd, R......00006.102, 205
TittOUaisscisssscsecsseaes
DOANE: siiseansnvessueeas
Tokharoi 268, 272, 276,
282, 324
Tokosanna, R....191, 195
TOMAYA 1.0 +ees00 ee 220, 230
Tong-king...... 9n6, 243
Tong-king, Gulf of... 246
TPOOLHAL aternavanees 35, 284
Toringoi se aseeeeO0, O64
TOsalel scecesss 225, 230-1
Tougma ...225, 231, 255
Tribazina.se.ecceccseeee GOS
Triglypton or Trilingon
225, 231-4
taveae LOVSS
aeeeslOe-o

207

Trikadiba, Is.
Trinésia, Is. ...
Trinkdénamalai

INDEX. 369
PAGE PAGE
Tripuri (Tipperah) 194, | Vaitarna, R. ......41, 192

| 232-4
Trishtama, R......... 86
Trivéni, R. .........99, 101

Trybaktra .........6 277
TUti@Orin: susssesseess 57
Tybiakai ........ ihegecg LOS
Tyndis vee neeeeso0e 48-50

Tyndis, R....70-1, 80, 104

Tyna, Resssessevesas 65, 103
U
Uehh: ccsveciieyie . 80
Udépur (Udayapura) 229,
234
Udumbara .....eseveee 149
Udyana sracnceoves JLOF
Udydnapura ........ 113
Ujjain... se... 38, 102, 154
Util wtccinixeccaen TSO
Ural, Mts. .....sceeeee 291
Ural Ri averesaieerice 290
UPABSD: des eescosesusiearces 118
Uttarrakuru...... 305, 326
Vv

Vagal, Ru... ccs... 1B4
Vaitarani, R. ...... 71
Vaidurya, Mts. ..... 81
Viadisall aaesatcacslewennss 218

47 G

Vakataka savieeve- LOO
Valabhi ............38¢, 140
Vandabanda...... 976, 282
Varada, R...... 158-9, 179
Varanasi .........129, 248

Varela, C. ....ceeeeeee LON
‘V aril igs. waives bettas 269
Var pnd: iivssicesed veers 307
Vasai (Bassein) ...... 40

Vasishtha .......... 90
Welt: ce cecsasans tek LOT
Vendeloos Bay ...... 268
VONS) diposgesuearsse LOO
Vilivayakura ......... 179
Vindion (Vindhya),

Mts. ...covesseae (D070, 80
Vingorla Rocks...... 188
Vipasa, R. ........0 90
Vipula, Mt.........6... 205
Vitasté, RR. .....ccccee. 85
Volgas Rescseeeeeeee 290

WwW
Washati, Mts. ...... 314

Wildbeast Gulf 244, 246

Worankal...... 187, 233
x

Narxiaré ....c.cecvecees 314

XoaMa vescccceosaeeer 151-2

Kodrake ..c.seeee ceseee 148

370 INDEX.
PAGE PAGE
Y ZAMILAL .s-eee00e 219, 221
Zanzibar, Is. .....+006 191

Yamuna (Jamna), R. 83,

98
Varkand wasaie 1208
Yellapur .....:..000500 181

VOC ities ves 186
Yuma, Mb. ......000006 205
Z
Zaha ..ccecoes 25, 27, 209
Zaha, Is. ......sceeceree Q5l
L@DAL vasics cians 9n 6, 202-3
Zaén tau acee

Zaradros, R. wee. OL
Zarafshan, R. ...... 290
Zarah Lake ... 314, 317
Zarangoi or Sarangai 314
ZAVAtAL sseccseveeveee 288
Zariaspa ... 19n, 269, 274
Zaviaspal ..seeeveeeee 268
Zariaspis, R. ... 268, 324
ZevOgerel seve 152, 154
Zeus, C. veer. 248, 258
Zibala, Is. ......000 251
Zimyra. seiessaasags. GOS

GENERAL INDEX.

PAGE
A
Agastya Rishi ...... 78
Albtriini .......seceee8 120
AIRING: sieceseaXinswaws 295
Ammianus Marcel-
HNUS:, wescevecntedess 323
Andhrabritya dy-

Nasty: avs 40
Antiokhos Theos . . 271
Ants, gold-digging. 107,

110
Apollonius of Tyana. 119
Aristeas of Prokon-

TESOB caccecccvaceces 995
AYTIANL — ssccaccecvercce 292,
Arsakes ..cscccsssseses Oud

Asoka, 116, 119, 154, 300

ABLOR: ceehscvwtsseseeex LEC
B
Baleokouros ... 176, 177
Basarcnagos ......++. 185-6
Bdellium ......ceeeeeeee 117
Beryl] .....+...00 180-1, 247
BHP: ccssecscasiaees 153
Boukephalos ... 125, 126
Brankhidae.........4. 283 |

PAGE

C
Cammels..cccoccccsssseces Gad
Cannibals . 299
Carnelian stone...... 77
Chandragupta ...... 169
COCKBxcecteicces’ 225, 2382-3
Copper siies aidesaseae ce
Cottons: sss4 desis euies 68

Darius Hystaspes... 82

Diamonds 71, 158, 167,
169, 172
Dionysios . 114
E
Elephants eon ccetes 247, 249
G
Ginger .. . 247
Gold. 107, : "219, 2 939, 241,
247, 295
GPifA is ics esses cerssence 295
Gymnosophistai...... 130

H PAGE
Honey cessccsssscsecees 247
Hyacinths ..... wanes 247

K
Kadphises ...eceeee 272
Kanerkes ....cccceseveee 272
Kanishka ...116, 119, 188
KavlravaS ssescecseees 121
Kéralaputra ........ 182
Kostus ..cscccsseveseeeee L117

Krishna ............60, 128
Kérobothros ...... 52, 180
L
Lunar Race. 121, 129, 164
M
Maés or Titianus 14

Malabathrum (Cin-

namon)... 193, 219, 220

Mambares ....scceesee 40
Marinos of Tyre...... 3
Méchavahara ......... 109
Murex, shell-fish ... 236
Musikanos ....cc.c0 eee 144
Maisliti: 24sec eetiavians 60
N
Nardicsseccs AV? 225,229
INSTRU. eden nd cteust den 271

GENERAL INDEX.

0 PAGE

Onyx-stones. 77, 155, 176

PAndavas....sececeseeee
Pandya Dynasty
Paradise .....0.00000
Paradise (Aryan) ...
Parasan? .cssasiee
Pearl Fishery. 57, 64, 201,
258
Pepper ...ccceeeseeee 00, 53
Pirates viweivaesesesensan 180
POLOS? sapvewnce 89, 125, 164
Ptolemy, Geogl. sys-
tem of

Rachia (Raja)......... 254
Ravens, white...... 242-3
Rhinoceros ...18 n 11, 16

n Il4

IRIE siscsdaneten eeavsaaaas. 240

Ss
SAkyamuni 135, 166,228-9
Salivahana ........06 176
Samudragupta ...... 213
Sandanes.......seceeeee 40
Sandrakottos ......+0 169

GENERAL INDEX. — 6373

PAGE

SavaganesS secs 40

Satakarni Dynasty...

Schoinos ......46 13 n 10
Semiramis......... 271, 274
Silver...219, 221, 237, 247
Siroptolemaios ...... 177

Skylax . “...i033.5.82,. 108
Solar Race ............ 166
Sornagos............64, 184
SraMana sscccdscsveese OF

T
Taxiles .ccecosesceeeee LID

PAGE

Tiastanes (Chastdna) 152,
156
Tigers ...s60000000 247, 32d

Vv

| Vijaya verses 253-4
| Vikramaditya ...122, 154
| Vine-trees 264, 271, 308

Y

Vayatt cis iessiaeseesesee, 129
Vethar ssccsscestsasecsae 108

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